Sea Power and Maritime Affairs: Sea Power and Maritime Affairs Lesson 3: Oceanic Sea Power and the Emergence of European Nation States, 1400s-1763


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will comprehend the importance of sea borne commerce and square-rigged ocean-going merchantmen and warships to Europe's emergence from the Middle Ages. The student will know the important voyages of discovery and the reasons they were organized. The student will comprehend the succession of great maritime powers in the 15th through the 17th centuries (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain) and the reasons for the rise of each and the decline of all except Britain.


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will comprehend the causes and significance of the Grand Armada (1586-1588) to include the transition from galley warfare to that between sailing ships mounting cannon in broadsides. The student will comprehend the important historical events and strategic goals of France and Britain in their confrontations from the late 1600s to 1763.


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will know the major effects of events in Anglo-French relations on their colonial possessions in North America and around the world from the late 1600s to 1763.


Remember our Themes!: Remember our Themes! The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy Interaction between Congress and the Navy Interservice Relations Technology Leadership Strategy and Tactics Evolution of Naval Doctrine


Age of Sail: Age of Sail The 16th Century through the 19th Century.


Western Europe Emerges: Western Europe Emerges Major player in international trade and commerce Dissimilar climate, geography, and peoples Navigable rivers and surrounding coastal waters Growth of middle class of artisans, merchants, and tradesmen. Development of systems of exchange, banking, investment, and insurance. Rise in disposable income created demands for foods and goods from other continents.


Sailing Ships: Sailing Ships Galleys useless on Atlantic Ocean due to high sea states and poor weather. Merchant ships developed into caravels and then galleons. Forecastles and aftercastles developed. Initially grappling hooks are used for boarding enemy ships, then cannon are used to attack at longer range. Improvements in navigation. Magnetic compass and “dead reckoning” or DR. Angle of stars above the horizon provided latitude. Allowed longer voyages away from land.


Age of Exploration: Age of Exploration Portugal: Prince Henry the Navigator Bartholomew Diaz - Cape of Good Hope - 1486 Vasco da Gama - India - 1497 -- Conflict with Arabs. Cabral - Brazil - 1500 Spain - Large empire established in the Americas. Columbus - Americas - 1492 Named for Amerigo Vespucci Magellan - Circumnavigation of the Globe - 1519-1522 “The Conquistadors” of America Balboa - Panama - 1513 Ponce de Leon - Florida - 1513 Cortez - Mexico (Aztec Empire) - 1520 Pizarro - Peru (Inca Empire) - 1532


Prince HenryofPortugal: Prince Henry of Portugal “The Navigator”


Vasco de Gama: Vasco de Gama


ChristopherColumbus: Christopher Columbus Admiral of the Ocean Seas


Ferdinand Magellan: Ferdinand Magellan


Early European Colonization: Early European Colonization Treaty of Tordesillas - 1494 Papal division of the world to regulate exploration and colonization by Portugal and Spain. England, Holland, and France begin exploration - 1500’s. Ignore Treaty of Tordesillas. European competition for overseas colonies begins. Mercantilism - Colonies needed to support economic growth. Colonies established in areas in Caribbean and Latin America not already claimed by Portugal and Spain. England: Eastern coast of present-day United States. France: Canada and Louisiana Holland: New York area, South Africa and challenge of Portugal in Indian Ocean and East Indies.


Spain vs. England (1567-1604): Spain vs. England (1567-1604) Spain = Superpower Conflicts with France for N Europe, Turkey for the Med. Spanish Netherlands revolts and serves as distraction from quest for Sea Control. Spanish king, Philip II sends large army to Netherlands, 1566. England’s options limited, creates “Cold War”


KingPhillip II: King Phillip II


QueenElizabeth I: Queen Elizabeth I


Slide19: The Spanish Armada, 1567-1585


1588 - The Spanish Armada: 1588 - The Spanish Armada English Fleet 34 large warships 163 smaller vessels 2,000 guns 16,000 men Advantage: Range/Accuracy of Weapons Maneuverability Leadership Spanish Armada 62 large warships 68 smaller vessels 1,100 guns 27,000 men Advantage: Pounds per Gun Total weight of broadside. Personnel


The English Upper Hand : The English Upper Hand Spanish: Duke of Medina Sidonia English: Charles Howard of Effingham, Lord Admiral of England Tactics “Weather Gage” effectively utilized by British. Held upwind position. Now able to “off-fight” with longer range guns. Previously ships had to make physical contact to engage. Maneuverability now more important. English had superior seamanship skills.


Routeof theSpanish Armada: Route of the Spanish Armada


Defeat of the Spanish Armada : Defeat of the Spanish Armada Spanish defeated in English Channel. Many Spanish ships wrecked in North Sea storm. Spain and its empire begin a long period of decline. England begins to establish overseas colonies - America. English Lesson: Decisions at sea were henceforth to be reached not by hand-to-hand combat but with the gun


Slide24: England sends a fleet to fight the Spanish


Rise of English Sea Power: Rise of English Sea Power Mid-1500’s - England begins to develop a standing fighting fleet under Henry VIII. Sea power vital to English (British) victory in a series of conflicts with other European powers: Spain (1567-1604) Holland (1652-1674) France (1689-1815) English Navy is of primary importance to the defense of England and its growing overseas empire. Designated Royal Navy in 1660 by King Charles II. England (including Wales) and Scotland form United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 and add Ireland in 1801. British Empire continues to grow overseas. Naval tactics developed and formalized.


Men of War: Forecastles and Aftercastles eliminated. Increased speed and stability. Multiple decks with gunports. More guns added. Full-rigging. Faster speeds. Many sailors. Needed to man sails and guns. Men of War


MenofWar: Men of War Propulsion: Sail Weapons: Guns (Broadside) Formation: Line-Ahead Rate Guns Decks Notes 1 > 100 3 Ships of the Line (Flag) 2 80-100 3 Ships of the Line (Flag) 3 60-80 2 Ships of the Line (Private) 4 50-60 1-2 Cruisers (Flag) 5 30-44 1 Cruisers (Frigates) 6 20-28 1 Cruisers (Sloops, Brigs & Schooners)


Man of War- Ship of the Line: Man of War- Ship of the Line


Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674): Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674) Series of three naval wars. (1652-54, 1665-67, 1672-74) Dutch United Provinces gain maritime trade monopolies. Use dominant sea power to advantage after independence from Spain in 1609. Challenged by Cromwell’s England: Builds the Navy Navigation Act, 1651


Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674): Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674) Dutch weaknesses Dependent upon sea for livelihood Had to fortify land frontier Did not have ships of the line Not tactically savvy (vis-à-vis British)


Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674): Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674) English naval tactics developed: “Fighting Instructions” “Line ahead” formations become standard. Provides ability to fire “broadsides” at enemy fleet. Royal Navy debates between Formal and Melee schools. Dutch loses possessions in North America. Hudson Valley and New Amsterdam (New York City) Fatal weaknesses: Dependent on sea, threats from other continental powers, configured for shallow water.


Line Ahead Formations: Line Ahead Formations Wind Weather Gage Lee Gage


Fleet Advantages: Fleet Advantages Weather Gage Held by the upwind fleet. Ability to determine the time and range of engagement of the enemy fleet. Lee Gage Held by the downwind fleet. Ability to determine the time of disengagement from the enemy fleet.


Line Ahead Formations: Line Ahead Formations Wind Weather Gage Lee Gage


Ships of the Line: Ships of the Line Only heavily gunned ships able to remain in line ahead formation during battle. Greater than 80 guns required. Smaller ships (cruisers) detached for patrol, reconnaissance, blockade, and attacks on enemy merchant ships (commerce raiding). Fleet with better gunnery skills can gain the advantage. Importance of training sailors to fire guns rapidly and accurately.


Firing A Muzzle-Loading Cannon: Firing A Muzzle-Loading Cannon Steps involved: 1. Insert a charge of gunpowder into the barrel with a gun ladle. 2. Insert a piece of cloth wadding with a rammer. (The wadding separates the charge from the shot.) 3. Insert the cannon ball (shot) with rammer. 4. Insert another piece of wadding with rammer. 5. Run the gun out (so the muzzle protrudes from the gun port). 6. Prick the powder charge through a "touch hole" at the top of the cannon. 7. Fill touch hole with powder from powder horn. 8. Ignite powder in touch hole by inserting a cord and lighting it. 9. Cannon fires. 10. Recoil pushes gun backwards. 11. Swab the gun's barrel with sponge and water.


Ships and Cannon: Ships and Cannon


Formal Tactics: Formal Tactics Wind


Formal Tactics: Formal Tactics Wind


Formal Tactics: Formal Tactics Wind


Melee Tactics Theory: Melee Tactics Theory To gain the advantage, one needs to concentrate firepower against the enemy fleet. Allows a superior weight of broadside. A conterminous line-ahead formation does not allow firepower to be massed. Must maneuver the fleet to gain the advantage in firepower. Massing Doubling Breaking the Line


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics Wind


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics “Massing” Wind


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics Wind


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics “Doubling” Wind


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics Wind


Melee Tactics: Melee Tactics “Breaking the Line” Wind


Navigation Improvements: Navigation Improvements Accurate longitude measurements become possible in 18th century. Accurate chronometer. Sextant - improves ability to measure angle of celestial bodies. Now accurate latitude and longitude available.


Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775): Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775) Great Britain fears France's threat to become militarily dominant in Europe. Continental element: France Army 5-to1 to the British Britain monetarily and militarily subsidies her continental allies Maritime element: Britain prospered through commerce across the Atlantic Royal Navy “shows the flag” from warships Britain gaining timber and Naval supplies from the Baltic. Britain maintained a fleet twice the size of France Permanent Fighting Instructions adopted by Royal Navy. Results of sea battles support the use of formal tactics.


PermanentFighting Instructions: Permanent Fighting Instructions Wind Van Rear Center


Tactics: Tactics French Navy - Defensive Desired to hold the lee gage. Able to retire in order to save ships. Unable to devote resources to Navy due to wars in Europe. Fired on the “up roll” to target rigging (masts and sails). Reduce British ability to maneuver into attack position. Few British casualties. Royal Navy - Offensive Desired to hold the weather gage. Advantage to the attacking fleet. Fired on the “down roll” into the enemy hulls Splinters and debris killed and maimed French gun crews. High numbers of French casualties.


Slide55: Wind British Fleet French Fleet


Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775): Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775) War of English Succession (1689-1697) English goal: Contain French aggression; maintain balance of power on continent of Europe. Battle of Beachy Head (1690), Battle of Barfleur (1692) Louis XIV lost the war; France abandoned its continental conquests; acknowledged William of Orange as King of England. War of Spanish Succession (1703-1713) Britain acquires possessions of France and her allies (e.g., Spain, Gibraltar) Battle of Malaga: Tactically indecisive, but French "flinched under bombardment" and re­treated to port. Great Britain was now leader in maritime commerce and clearly the "Mistress of the Seas."


Seven Years’ War (1756-1763): Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)


Battle for Minorca 20 May 1756: Battle for Minorca 20 May 1756 April 1756 French amphibious landing on Minorca British attempt to send reinforcements Formal Fighting Instructions prevented maneuvers Refocused interest on more flexible tactics


Seven Years’ War (1756-1763): Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) Significance: Geopolitical: Genuine world war; fought in German states, Mediterranean, Canada, West Indies, India, Africa, and Philippines. Strategic: Classic example of conflict between land power (France) and sea power (England). Great Britain Key to victory: “Pitt's Plan” of William Pitt the Elder. “Hitting” - Attack overseas colonies of France and Spain. “Holding” - French battle fleet through blockade of ports. Support continental allies: Frederick the Great of Prussia.


“Pitt’s Plan”: “Pitt’s Plan” Subsidize one or more allies on Continent Use own fleet to raid enemy coasts, thereby holding enemy troops away from allies blockade enemy and destroy his fleet convoy and support own troops in seizing enemy’s overseas colonies and associated seaborne trade


Seven Years’ War (1756-1763): Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) French counter-strategy Raid British maritime commerce Defend French Colonies Try to invade England Known as “French and Indian War” in America. British Siege of Quebec - 1759. Wolfe defeats Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham. British defeat French at Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759. Peace of Paris - 1763 Great Britain obtains Canada, U.S. East of Mississippi River to Appalachian Mts., Florida, and much of India.


Siege of Quebec: Siege of Quebec


The Plains of Abraham: The Plains of Abraham


Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759: Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759 Royal Navy establishes absolute control of the sea. French plan to invade Great Britain is thwarted.


Ongoing debate????: Ongoing debate???? Lessons from the Seven Years’ War Potter, Nimitz, Mahan will conclude: Naval power, or sea power, was "pervasive and inexorable." Naval predominance was decisive in a world war. Paul Kennedy will conclude: Sea power was only one component of British strategy during the period. A "continental" element was always present in the British considerations.


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will comprehend the importance of sea borne commerce and square-rigged ocean-going merchantmen and warships to Europe's emergence from the Middle Ages. The student will know the important voyages of discovery and the reasons they were organized. The student will comprehend the succession of great maritime powers in the 15th through the 17th centuries (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain) and the reasons for the rise of each and the decline of all except Britain.


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will comprehend the causes and significance of the Grand Armada (1586-1588) to include the transition from galley warfare to that between sailing ships mounting cannon in broadsides. The student will comprehend the important historical events and strategic goals of France and Britain in their confrontations from the late 1600s to 1763.


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will know the major effects of events in Anglo-French relations on their colonial possessions in North America and around the world from the late 1600s to 1763.


Slide72: Discussion Next time: The American Revolution