Chapter 1 :Chapter 1 The Psychology of Learning and Memory Slides prepared by Mary Waterstreet, St. Ambrose University


1.1 The Philosophy of Mind :1.1 The Philosophy of Mind


1.1 The Philosophy of Mind :3 1.1 The Philosophy of Mind Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory Aristotle and Associationism Descartes and Dualism John Locke and Empiricism William James and Association


Learning and Memory :4 Learning and Memory Learning—the process by which behavioral changes result from experience. Memory—the record of our past experiences acquired through learning.


Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory :5 Pay full attention during learning. Create associations between new and old material. Generate meaningful images. Practice facts and skills. Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory


Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory :6 Read material aloud and write it out. Use memory aids (post-it notes, calendars, or electronic schedulers). Try to remember when and where you first learned the material. Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory


Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory :7 Sleep well to increase concentration and facilitate memory storage. Create a poem or song to learn a string of random information. If blocked, relax and turn to something else. Learning and Memory in Everyday Life— Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory


Slide 8:8


Aristotle and Associationism :9 Aristotle and Associationism Aristotle (384–322 BC) Principles of associationism—memory requires linkages between pairs of events, sensations, ideas. Contiguity Nearness in time and space Frequency Similarity


Descartes and Dualism :10 Descartes and Dualism Descartes (1506–1650) Believed in dualism—immaterial mind and material body are separate entities, governed by their own laws. The body works as a machine with a fixed response (reflex) to an external sensory event (stimulus). Corbis


John Locke and Empiricism :11 John Locke and Empiricism John Locke (1632–1704) Held empiricist view—all knowledge results from experience alone. Children are “blank slate” All have equal potential for knowledge. The mind passively combines simple ideas into complex ideas.


William James and Association :12 William James and Association William James (1842–1910) Authored Principles of Psychology (1890) Worldwide psychology text for many decades Believed in associationism Memory of an event has many components. A second event may be remembered due to an overlap of components.


1.1 Interim Summary :13 1.1 Interim Summary Learning = changes in behavior through experience. Memory = record of past experiences; acquired through learning. Learning and memory = no single process for is a single cohesive process. Many kinds of memory, many ways to learn.


1.1 Interim Summary :14 1.1 Interim Summary Associationists: memory depends on links between events, sensations, ideas. Aristotle: three key association principles. Contiguity, frequency, similarity James: remembering involves learning links between event components. Activation of one component could activate others. Linkage between common components.


1.1 Interim Summary :15 1.1 Interim Summary Empiricists: we are born “blank slates.” All knowledge comes from experience. Aristotle, Locke, Watson Nativists: bulk of knowledge is inborn. Plato, Descartes, Galton Debate continues today. Nature versus nurture Nature (genes) is modified by experience.


1.1 Interim Summary :16 1.1 Interim Summary Descartes = dualist Mind and body are separate. Body is a machine to be understood through mechanical principles. Reflex pathway; sensory stimulus to motor response. Locke = empiricist All humans born with equal potential for knowledge and success (deserve equal opportunity).


1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection :1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection


1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection :18 1.2 Evolution and Natural Selection Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents of Evolution Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection Francis Galton: Variability of Nature Unsolved Mysteries—Can Learning Influence Evolution?


Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents of Evolution :19 Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents of Evolution Evolution—change in a species over time Early Proponents: Erasmus Darwin (1731–1892): Personal physician to King George III of England Grandfather of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton Jean-Baptiste Lamark (1744–1829): French naturalist Proposed (falsely) that an animal can acquire a trait from experience and pass it to progeny.


Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection :20 Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Amateur naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle Found beak variation in finches that matched survival on its isolated Galápagos island (Video Clips) Darwin 1; Darwin 2; Darwin 3; Darwin 4; Darwin 5; Darwin 6 HIP/Art Resource, NY


Darwin’s Three Criteria for Traits to Evolve through Natural Selection :21 Darwin’s Three Criteria for Traits to Evolve through Natural Selection


Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection :22 Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection Proposed theory of natural selection. Species evolve when a trait is inheritable, can vary, and makes individual more “fit” for survival and reproduction. Traits can be physical or behavioral Authored The Origin of Species (1859) Proposes a similar ancestor for man and ape Gives rise to evolutionary psychology (study behavioral evolution through natural selection). Learning is integral to survival.


Francis Galton: Variability of Nature :23 Francis Galton: Variability of Nature Francis Galton (1822–1911) Charles Darwin (cousin) inspired Galton’s study of human individual differences. Fascinated by the physically and mentally fittest Found that attributes (e.g., height, blood pressure, memory skills) followed a normal distribution, a bell-shaped curve. Began eugenics movement (encouraged procreation among society’s fittest)


Francis Galton: Variability of Nature :24 Francis Galton: Variability of Nature Founder of modern statistics; developed statistical concepts like: Hypothesis—an observation that can be tested Correlational study—two variables tend to vary together Experimental group (receives treatment) versus control group (no treatment) Problem: Galton’s research did not control for confounds (extraneous variables).


Unsolved Mysteries—Can Learning Influence Evolution? :25 Unsolved Mysteries—Can Learning Influence Evolution? Evolution = change in a species over time Learning = a process of adaptation and improvement View learning as an adaptive process that fine-tunes what evolution began.


1.2 Interim Summary :26 1.2 Interim Summary Theory of evolution = change over time. New traits passed from one generation to the next. Charles Darwin: natural selection Survival of the fittest = mechanism for evolution. Trait evolution requires inheritability, natural variation, relevance to survival. Galton: all natural abilities are inherited. Developed much of modern statistics and experimental methodology.


1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology :1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology


1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology :28 1.3 The Birth of Experimental Psychology Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect


Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments :29 Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) Completed first experiments on human memory (used himself as sole participant). Especially interested in forgetting (memory deterioration over time). Examined how long it took him to relearn a previously learned list. Established retention curve (percentage time saved to relearn list).


Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments :30 Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human Memory Experiments Unlike Galton, designed experiments that examined hypothesis validity. Dependent variable—a study’s manipulated factor Number of nonsense (e.g. SOK) syllables recalled Independent variable—observed factor whose change is measured Delay between learning and relearning list


Limitations to Ebbinghaus Research :31 Limitations to Ebbinghaus Research Conducted research only on himself. As the participant, he knew the manipulated variables (subject bias). As the researcher, he knew the desired outcome (experimenter bias). Modern research avoids with: Blind design—participant unaware of hypothesis Double-blind design—both participant and experimenter unaware of hypothesis (e.g., research with placebo).


Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning :32 Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) Russian physiologist; studies of dog digestion lead to studies on animal learning Classical conditioning—learning that one stimulus predicts another (Click Link for video) Conditioned stimulus (bell) predicts unconditioned stimulus (food) Extinction—weakening a learned response Pairing bell with no food Generalization—similar sounds produce similar conditioned responses


Pavlov and Learning Experiments :33 Pavlov and Learning Experiments (a)The Granger Collection, New York / (b) Adapted from Allen et al., 2002.


Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect :34 Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) Research on cats’ trial-and-error learning to escape puzzle box (Click Link). Instrumental conditioning—behavior determines whether consequence will occur. Law of effect—responses with desirable consequences increase future response; In contrast, responses with undesirable consequences decrease future response.


1.3 Interim Summary :35 1.3 Interim Summary Ebbinghaus: studied memorization of nonsense syllables. Developed basic experimental techniques to study human memory and forgetting. Pavlov: classical conditioning Studied how animals learn that an initially neutral stimulus can predict an upcoming event.


1.3 Interim Summary :36 1.3 Interim Summary Thorndike: animal behavior is modified by consequences (reward or punishment). Puzzle boxes Law of effect—the probability of a behavioral response increases or decreases depending on the consequences it elicits.


1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism :1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism


1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism :38 1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism John Watson and Behaviorism B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism


John Watson and Behaviorism :39 John Watson and Behaviorism John Watson (1878–1958) Founded behaviorism—study is restricted to observable behaviors. (Click Video Link) Studied maze learning in rats: Examined rat performance motivation; eliminated sensory stimuli. Argued that rats learned automatic motor habits (ability to navigate maze), independent of external sensory cues.


B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism :40 B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Developed “Skinner box.” Click Video Link Operant conditioning chamber for automated response learning Intermittent reinforcement schedules Authored Walden Two (1948); Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). Later work advocates radical behaviorism— consciousness and free will are illusions. B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism


Slide 41:41 Latent learning—learning happens in the absence of training or consequence. Laid groundwork for cognitive studies of learning.


Limitation of Behaviorism :42 Limitation of Behaviorism Behaviorism failed to explain human cognitive abilities e.g., language, perception, reasoning, memory Cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of higher-level human abilities e.g., thinking, language, reasoning Turns away from animal research.


1.4 Interim Summary :43 1.4 Interim Summary Behaviorists say psychology should be the study of observable behaviors. Watson: sensory-deprivation studies Show how rats learn maze navigation. Skinner: radical behaviorism Consciousness and free will are illusions. Cognitive functions (e.g, language) are a series of learned stimulus–response associations.