Argument Analysis

Argument from... : 

Argument from... Different types of arguments and their origins/intent

Ask yourself… : 

Ask yourself… As you analyze an argument: How are words used so as to entice you to go along with what the speaker intends, perhaps without him or her having to really make a full case? (These do not, by themselves, mean his or her ideas don't deserve assent!!) The following slides contain types of arguments that may or may not be valid…be sure to read every argument critically!

Apply to CARP reading! : 

Apply to CARP reading! As you analyze readings, watch to see if your author uses any of the following…

Argument from Outrage : 

Argument from Outrage When anger functions as a premise – a “one sided argument”   May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of anger May attempt to justify letting anger over one topic influence judgment about another, unrelated topic (Example: anger about soldiers dying in Iraq used to berate Republican ideology.) May simplistically attempt to focus anger on an easy target (aka--scapegoating) Anger often leads to hasty generalizations, prejudice, and unfounded ideas

Argument by Force/Scare Tactics : 

Argument by Force/Scare Tactics When fear functions as a premise  May use selective presentation to attempt to create, increase, or confirm feelings of fear in one’s audience (for example, using stories of sick children often scares parents into agreeing with an argument) May attempt to justify letting fear of one item influence judgment about another, unrelated item (Fear of children becoming sick leading to fear of foreigners and their potential germs) Depends on inappropriate beliefs about what is feared

Argument from Pity : 

Argument from Pity When sympathy functions as a premise  Occurs primarily as deception (“feel sorry for me because I went through…”) May make calculated demands on feelings of sympathy and compassion May result in assumption of inadequately justified obligations (“Thousands of average American citizens suffer from the agonizing pain of emphysema. Many of these people spend years painfully gasping for each breath. Tobacco companies who sought out these citizens as customers now abandon them as they lie dying.”) “I have suffered immeasurably from ageism, and just because I am old does not mean that my ideas (about anything) are invalid or less important!” Can be OK if mitigated by competent moral reasoning

Argument from Envy : 

Argument from Envy When jealousy motivates premises  Selection of premises may be influenced by irrelevant feelings Unstated (assumed) prejudices are likely Likely to occur as interior rationalization Example: Envy about a celebrity’s lifestyle and money leading to a negative review of a movie that celebrity performs in

Argument from flattery : 

Argument from flattery Apple Polishing: When flattery motivates premises Sometimes, a writer will attempt to flatter his/her audience or the audience’s belief system Watch out for any assumptions that the author seems to be making about the audience’s belief system For example: Not all readers would agree that doing something the way Jesus would is necessarily desirable. Complimenting Christians is utilizing flattery in an argument.

Argument from Wishful Thinking : 

Argument from Wishful Thinking When hope or desire motivates premises often used in “American Dream” arguments Example: “Americans need to restore faith in their government, and by endorsing Bob Smith, we can all achieve the America we all dream of for ourselves and our children.”   **Key** Fallacy includes as a premise the belief that thinking or wishing will change probability May occur as interior rationalization, explanation of faith, or “cheerleading”

Argument from Peer Pressure/Group Think : 

Argument from Peer Pressure/Group Think When need for approval or belonging motivates premises Example: “All young adults need to go to college; it’s the path to future success!” (Said in a college class, it would be difficult to find dissent.) Claims accepted (function as true) because the group wants them accepted **Known fact**: people may change beliefs or interpretations if they find themselves in the minority, even in a group of strangers As nationalism, may be actively used to discourage critical thinking

Argument from Rationalizing : 

Argument from Rationalizing When inauthentic premises are substituted for true motives to justify a conclusion Example: “Women have been the victims of domestic abuse for decades; therefore, premeditated murder of an abusive spouse should be treated with mercy and compassion rather than punishment.”   Misdirects attention from potentially relevant facts or ideas **May** constitute or result from self-deception Substituted premises may also support unintended conclusions

Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common Practice : 

Argument from Popularity/ Tradition/Common Practice When a widely-held belief that something is true or right is deemed sufficient support for being truth “Being overweight is unhealthy” is a widely held belief, but not everyone who is overweight is unhealthy—in addition, different people have different ideas about what constitutes “overweight” Evidence supporting the belief or behavior is not accessible for evaluation Tends to gather strength with repetition When group decisions have performative power--as in most votes--what the group thinks can make a proposition true or behavior right or wrong (related to Groupthink)

Argument from Relativism/Subjectivism : 

Argument from Relativism/Subjectivism When truth is reduced to perspective Opinions are not FACTS, even if we or the author truly believes them to be 100% true.   Matters of fact and matters of opinion must be treated differently Legitimate differences in perception must be acknowledged **Cultural variables and prerogatives must be identified** Moral and ethical values are obvious cases in which preferences are decisive

Argument from “Two Wrongs” : 

Argument from “Two Wrongs” When wrong is taken for right: this is clearly a Fallacy! Example: Begins with Ann harming Bob, or even being suspected of thinking harming Bob is OK Bob decides to engage in wrongful behavior just because Ann did or might engage in wrongful behavior **Bob’s decision is simply reactive, and not the outcome of reasoned inference**

Argument from Anecdotes, Stories, Metaphors : 

Argument from Anecdotes, Stories, Metaphors Anecdotes are fine when used to illustrate points or provide examples; however, one story cannot support an entire argument about a topic. These cast an issue in a favorable or unfavorable light, or can highlight or suppress certain aspects. Examples/anecdotes work by suggesting a likeness between a person or situation in the story and the reader. What is emphasized or suppressed is key to manipulating the reader’s thoughts.

Argument using Rapport : 

Argument using Rapport How does the author go about building a sense of friendliness and receptivity on the part of the audience? Some methods are friendly introductions ("my friends"), complimenting, showing respect, speaking the speakers 'language,' and conveying optimism. These are important communicative techniques! Rapport is important. We just have to be aware of its use in persuasive contexts. Watch out for an overly-friendly addressing of the audience

Argument from Humor : 

Argument from Humor Humor has a great way of neutralizing our critical thinking. Humor is not bad in itself; it should just be read with caution so as not to accept an argument just because it was funny. Besides, not everything is funny

Argument from Emotion : 

Argument from Emotion Emotional words can and do affect readers. Advertisers are especially savvy about the emotional qualities of certain words, and the sway they can give a speaker, just by their associations. Consider the possible power of: winner, loser, infantile, powerful, lovely, courage, freedom, radical. How are these kinds of words employed to generate a certain response in the listener? What purposes are served?

Argument from Questions : 

Argument from Questions A well-placed question can manipulate readers’ thinking and convince them to accept an argument as valid. Example of a good question: “Why would anyone assume that our government lies to us?” Example of a manipulative question: “Why would anyone assume that euthanizing an animal is humane?” “When did Americans start to become so fat and lazy?” What type of answers is the writer looking for in his/her argument?

Arguments are everywhere… : 

Arguments are everywhere… Look carefully at where they’re leading! End of presentation.