President Nixon

President Nixon: 

President Nixon

Nixon and Vietnam: 

Nixon and Vietnam A. 1969, Nixon publicly claimed he had secret plan for ending the war -- He didn’t; it continued 4 more years; cost 1000s of US lives. B. Lottery draft replaced previous system 1. Beginning in Dec. 1969 the new draft method for men between ages 18 and 25. 2. Designed to be a fairer system; draftees could no longer get deferments (such as for college) C. 'Vietnamization' 1. Nixon called for gradual withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam 2. S. Vietnam would receive US money, weapons and training so they could gradually take over the burden of fighting the Vietcong. -- By 1973, number of US soldiers reduced from 500K to 25K. 3. Nixon Doctrine: Asians and others would now have to fight own wars without support of significant numbers of US ground troops. 4. Nixon expanded bombing attacks First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security. Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall furnish military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense.

'Silent Majority' Speech: 

'Silent Majority' Speech 1. Large-scale protests continued a. Doves wanted an immediate withdrawal that was complete, unconditional, and irreversible. b. Mylai Massacre, 1968 (revealed to public in 1969) i. Lt. William Calley massacred 350 civilians in a small village ii. Calley convicted of murder in his court martial and sentenced to life in prison. iii. Calley claimed to follow direct order; sentence later lowered to 10 years iv. Public outraged and hundreds of thousands protested c. By October 1969, 2 million people across the U.S. protested Nixon’s policies. 2. November 3, Nixon televised his appeal to the great 'silent majority,' who presumably supported the war. a. Aimed largely at middle class Americans who sought law and order; Nixon denounced doves and protesters b. One of most important political speeches of late 20th century. -- Symbolized the rise of a conservative backlash against liberalism and the acrimonious divisions that resulted c. Politically divisive as Nixon and Agnew verbally attacked the protestors and media for not supporting gov’tpolicies 'And so tonight—to you, the great silent majority of my fellow Americans—I ask for your support.'

Negotiations: 

Negotiations 1. Talks had begun in 1968 between US-supported Thieu gov’t and the North Vietnam-supported Vietcong. a. US position: all N. Vietnam forces should withdraw from S. Vietnam and Thieu gov’t should remain. b. N. Vietnam: US troops withdraw; coalition gov’t including Vietcong should replace Thieu 2. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger began secret negotiations with North Vietnam

Cambodia: 

Cambodia 1. Nixon ordered secret bombing of Cambodia, Laos, and N. Vietnam in March, 1969 (not made public until 1973) -- Purpose: cut off communist supply lines; ultimately failed. 2. April 1970, Nixon announced on TV he was sending troops into Cambodia to clear out communists who ignored Cambodian neutrality and disrupt Ho Chi Minh Trail -- Invasion would be limited to 60 days.

New wave or protests over Cambodia: 

New wave or protests over Cambodia a. Kent State incident (May 3, 1970, Ohio) i. Students at Kent State protested; burned the ROTC building ii. National Guard fired into crowd killing 4 (innocent bystanders) andwounding 11. b. Jackson State, May 1970 (all-black school in Mississippi) i. One week after Kent State, rioting in downtown Jackson prompted National Guard to be called out. ii. 2 dead, 12 wounded; both dead were innocent bystanders. c. Several hundred colleges closed down by student strikes; moderates joined radicals. 4. Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 5. Protests waned after Cambodian climax

"Pentagon Papers", 1971: 

'Pentagon Papers', 1971 1. Former defense analyst Daniel Ellsberg leaked classified war related gov’t documents of Johnson’s presidency to the New York Times. 2. Revealed that the government had misled the Congress and the public regarding its intentions in Vietnam during the mid-1960s. a. Primary reason for fighting was not to eliminate communism but to 'avoid a humiliating political defeat.' b. Gulf of Tonkin truth revealed. 3. White House tried to block publication;-- Supreme court overruled Nixon. 4. Government’s credibility received another heavy blow.

Draft: 

Draft 1973, Nixon abolished the draft and established an all-volunteer army.

26th Amendment: 

26th Amendment (Ratified in 1971) a. Voting age lowered from 21 to 18 years of age. b. If soldiers were old enough to die for their country, they were old enough to vote Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Election of 1972: 

Election of 1972 A. Nominees 1. Democrats nominated George McGovern -- McGovern hampered by a party divided over the war and social policies as well as his own ultra- liberalism. 2. George Wallace ran again as the American Independent candidate -- Shot on May 15 and left paralyzed below the waist. 3. Richard Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew renominated by the Republican party. a. Emphasized that he had wound the 'Democratic War' in Vietnam down from 540,000 troops to 30,000. b. Candidacy received boost 12 days before election when Kissinger announced 'peace is at hand' in Vietnam and an agreement would be reached within days. -- No agreement occurred; the war lasted almost another year. B. Results 1. Landslide victory for Nixon: 520-17; popular majority of 47.1 million to 29.1 million. 2. Republicans suffered losses in both houses of Congress-- Reduced Nixon’s mandate for his policies.

Foreign policy issues during Nixon's presidency (excluding Vietnam): 

Foreign policy issues during Nixon's presidency (excluding Vietnam) A. Detente: shift in U.S. policy toward communism 1. Sec. of State Henry Kissinger traveled to China and USSR for secret sessions to plan summit meetings with the communists. 2. Nixon believed USSR and China clashing over their interpretations of Marxism could give U.S. opportunity to play off one against the other. 3. Nixon also hoped to gain their aid in pressuring North Vietnam into peace. 4. Nixon and Kissinger’s policies a. realpolitik: US should pursue policies and make alliances based on its national interests rather than on any particular view of the world. b. Balance of power: 'It will be a safer world and a better world if we have a strong, healthy, United States, Europe, Soviet Union, China, Japan -- each balancing the other.' -- Nixon in 1971 -- Détente was the key to this balance.

China visit, 1972: 

China visit, 1972 1. February 1972, Nixon and Kissinger went to China to meet with Mao Zedong and his associates. 2. Recognition of China a. U.S. agreed to support China’s admission to the United Nations and to pursue economic and cultural exchanges. b. Reversed U.S. policy of not recognizing the Chinese revolution in 1949. c. China officially recognized by U.S. in 1979.

Soviet Union and détente: 

Soviet Union and détente 1. Czechoslovakia invaded (1968) by Soviets seeking to squash student reform movement. a. Czechoslovakia became one of strictest govt’s in E. Europe for two decades. b. US, preoccupied with Vietnam, could do little to aid Czech reformers 2. Nixon’s Moscow visit -- May 1972, Nixon played his 'China card' with the Kremlin. a. Soviets wanted U.S. foodstuffs and feared intensified rivalry with a US-backed China. b. Chairman Leonoid Brezhnev approached Nixon about nuclear reduction talks. -- Nixon flew to Russia to sign the historic arms treaty. c. Nixon’s visit ushered in an era of relaxed tensions called détente. i. Policy sought to establish rules to govern the rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and China. ii. Resulted in several significant agreements. iii. Agreements significant as they were made before US withdrew from Vietnam.

Arms control treaties: 

Arms control treaties a. SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) signed in May, 1972. -- U.S. and USSR agreed to stop making nuclear ballistic missiles. b. ABM Treaty (Anti-ballistic missiles)-- US and USSR agreed to reduce the number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each power. c. Treaties moot by U.S. development of 'MIRVs' (Multiple Independently Targeted Reentry Vehicles) i. 1 missile could carry many warheads ii. Both U.S. and Soviets had nearly 20,000 warheads by 1980s! Grain deal of 1972: 3-year arrangement by which the U.S. agreed to sell at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals to the Soviet Union.

Détente evaluated: 

Détente evaluated a. Successful overall as U.S. checkmated and co-opted the two great Communist powers into helping end the Vietnam War. b. Did not end the arms race c. Ended in 1979 with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Ending the War in Vietnam: 

Ending the War in Vietnam A. South Vietnam gov’t proved unable to defeat the communists B. US withdrew from Cambodia in early 1972 (bombing continued) C. Spring 1972, North Vietnam equipped with foreign tanks burst through the DMZ separating the two Vietnams. 1. Nixon ordered massive bombing of N. Vietnam; mined its ports 2. Détente: Nixon’s diplomacy with China and USSR paid dividends as neither retaliated against the U.S. 3. North Vietnamese offensive ground to a halt. D. October 1972, Paris Peace Talks reopened. 1. North Vietnam dropped demand that a coalition gov’t replace Thieu in the South. 2. US would allow N. Vietnamese troops to remain in S. Vietnam. 3. Draft agreement included a cease-fire, return of American POW’s, and US withdrawal from Vietnam. 4. With election of 1972 approaching, Nixon wanted a settlement. -- Kissinger announced 'peace is at hand' 5. Settlement fell apart as Thieu wouldn’t sign the treaty. 6. Christmas Bombings: Hanoi and Haiphong a. Dec. 18, Nixon ordered intense bombing of North Vietnam’s major cities with the most massive bombing of the war b. Aimed to force N. Vietnam back to the negotiating table 'respect the independence, sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity of Vietnam as recognized by the 1954 Geneva Agreements on Vietnam.'

Energy Crisis, 1973: 

Energy Crisis, 1973 (Sometimes called 'Oil Crisis') 1. Major cause for U.S. economic troubles in the 1970s 2. Yom Kippur War of 1973 resulted in bitterness among Arabs toward Western nations for their support of Israel. 3. Arab Oil Embargo a. Arab states established an oil boycott to push the Western nations into forcing Israel to withdraw from lands controlled since the 'Six Day War' of 1967 b. Kissinger negotiated withdrawal of Israel west of the Suez Canal and the Arabs lifted their boycott. 4. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran, raised the price of oil from about $3 to $11.65/ barrel in an attempt to force U.S. to recognize the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and support other Arab demands. a. U.S. gas prices doubled and inflation shot above 10%. b. Nixon refused to ration gasoline and an acute gasoline shortage ensued.

Helsinki Conference: 

Helsinki Conference (July, 1975) -- 34 countries present a. Held during Gerald Ford’s presidency b. One group of agreements officially ended World War II by finally legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and other East European countries. c. In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of people and information between East and West and the protection of certain basic 'human rights.' -- Yet, the Soviets reneged on their pledges. d. U.S. angry that USSR continued to send huge quantities of arms and military technicians to pro-Communist forces around the world. e. Ford maintained policy of détente but U.S. and USSR relations were deteriorating.

Paris Accords (1973): 

Paris Accords (1973) 1. North Vietnam agreed to same deal reached in October of 1972. a. North Vietnam retained control over large areas of the South. b. Agreed to release US POWs within 60 days. c. US would withdraw its forces after prisoners were released. 2. Thieu agreed because Nixon promised US would back him. 3. Nixon: 'Peace with honor' 4. Critics: 'Could have come to this agreement 4 years earlier.' 5. March 29, 1973, the last American combat troops left South Vietnam

Saigon Falls and Costs: 

Saigon Falls and Costs Fall of South Vietnam to communists occurred in April 1975 1. S. Vietnam capital city of Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City. 2. Not until1995 did U.S. formally recognize Vietnam (President Clinton) G. Costs of the War 1. 58,000 dead Americans, 300,000 wounded; MIA -2,583 2. Over 2 million Vietnamese dead; MIAs - 300,000 3. Derailed Johnson’s 'Great Society': $150 billion spent on the war rather than on social programs. 4. A large percentage of Americans came to distrust their government (even more so after Watergate Scandal)

Nixon’s Domestic Policy: 

Nixon’s Domestic Policy

"New Federalism": 

'New Federalism' 1. Revenue sharing --Congress passed in 1972 a five year plan to distribute $30 billion of federal revenues to the states. 2. Nixon proposed bulk of welfare payments be shifted to the states and a 'minimum income' be established for poor families, but did not push the program through Congress.

Civil Rights: 

Civil Rights 1. Nixon sought to block renewal of the Voting Rights Act and delay implementation of court ordered school desegregation in Mississippi. 2. Supreme Court ordered busing of students in 1971 to achieve school desegregation. -- Nixon proposed an anti-busing bill but Congress blocked it. 3. Nixon furthered affirmative action by establishing goals and timetables for companies to hire women and minorities. 'Philadelphia Plan' Critics charged Nixon was trying to weaken labor unions by using affirmative action for hiring practices.

Congressional Legislation: 

Congressional Legislation 1. Social Security benefits and food stamps increased in 1970. 2. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) -- 1970 -- Agency would monitor worker safety conditions. 3. Federal Election Campaign Act: would reduce campaign contributions

Environmentalism: 

Environmentalism 1. Earth Day, April 22, 1970 seen as symbolic beginning of the nation’s environmental era. 2. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created in 1970 (to stall the environmental movement) a. Its inception climaxed two decades of environmentalism -- Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) exposed poisonous effects of pesticides. b. Eventually the EPA stood on the front line of the battle for a clean environment: Clean Air Act (1970) and clean air and water acts a few years later. c. Progress made in subsequent decades on reducing automobile emissions and cleaning up polluted rivers and lakes. d. Nixon and Ford opposed to environmental legislation during their terms due to conservative perceptions of over-regulation of businesses and increased costs.

Toxic Waste: 

Toxic Waste a. Example: Love Canal, NY i. Soil and groundwater so polluted EPA declared town unfit for habitation. ii. Residents evacuated, homes boarded up, community sealed off by a tall chain-link fence. b. Superfund established in 1980 by President Carter (law aimed at cleaning toxic dumps) -- Impact: Release of selected toxic chemicals down 46%

Protest over nuclear power: 

Protest over nuclear power a. Three Mile Island -- March, 1979 in Harrisburg, PA i. Worst nuclear disaster in U.S. history; core released radioactive water and steam. ii. Officials feared massive radiation release but it never came. iii. Reactor shut down for 6 years. iv. 100,000 residents evacuated. b. Environmental groups stepped-up their protests but the powerful nuclear power lobby prevented any significant change.

Endangered Species Act, 1973: 

Endangered Species Act, 1973 a. Area of protected land and water increased 300% b. Recovered species include bald eagle, peregrine falcon, gray whale. c. Criticism: Wetlands regulations and Endangered Species Act imposed unconstitutional restrictions onlandowners. Too much valuable land taken out of production and off the tax rolls.

Economic Problems and Policy: 

Economic Problems and Policy 1. 1969, Nixon cut spending and raised taxes. Encouraged Federal Reserve Board to raise interest rates but the economy grew worse. 2. Unemployment climbed to 6% in 1970 while real gross national product declined in 1970. U.S. experienced a trade deficit in 1971. 3. Inflation reached 12% by 1971 -- Cost of living more than tripled from 1969 to 1981; longest and steepest inflationary cycle in U.S. history. 4. Price and wage controls a. 1970, Congress gave president the power to regulate prices and wages b. 1971, Nixon announced a 90-day price and wage freeze and took the U.S. off the gold standard. c. At end of 90 days, Nixon established mandatory guidelines for wage and price increases. d. 1973, Nixon turned to voluntary wage and price controls except on health care, food, and construction. e. When inflation increased rapidly, Nixon cut back on government expenditures, refusing to spend funds already appropriated by Congress (impounding).

Why did the U.S. economy stagnate?: 

Why did the U.S. economy stagnate? a. Federal deficits in the 1960s during 'Great Society' and Vietnam War b. International competition especially from Germany and Japan i. U.S. losing its economic hegemony since the days following WWII. ii. U.S. complacent; saw little need initially to modernize plants and seek more efficient methods of production. c. Rising energy costs due to the oil crisis. d. Increase in numbers of women and teenagers in the work force took part-time jobs and were less likely to develop skills in the long-term. e. Shift of the economy from manufacturing to services where productivity gains were allegedly more difficult to achieve. f. Inflationary military and welfare spending during 1960s (in the absence of off-setting taxes) because they give people money without adding to the supply of goods those dollars can buy. 6. Stagflation by mid-1970s (plagued Ford and Carter presidencies) 1. Slowing productivity and rising inflation -- rare. 2. Industry slowed down in the 1970s while inflation hit 11% in 1974 3. Unemployment hit over 9% in 1975

Spiro Agnew resigns: 

Spiro Agnew resigns (October, 1973) 1. Agnew pleaded no contest to charges of income tax evasion and accepting bribes while governor of Maryland and resigned the vice presidency. 2. Nixon nominated Gerald R. Ford, the popular conservative House Minority Leader G. In a non-related matter, Nixon was forced to pay back taxes for tax evasion ($500,000) -- Also accused of using public funds for improvements to his private residencies in California and Florida Dear Mr. President: As you are aware, the accusations against me cannot be resolved without a long, divisive and debilitating struggle in the Congress and in the Courts. I have concluded that, painful as it is to me and to my family, it is in the best interests of the Nation that I relinquish the Vice Presidency. Accordingly, I have today resigned the Office of Vice President of the United States. A copy of the instrument of resignation is enclosed. It has been a privilege to serve with you. May I express to the American people, through you, my deep gratitude for their confidence in twice electing me to be Vice President. Sincerely, SPIRO T. AGNEW [The President, The White House, Washington, D.C.] October 10, 1973 Dear Mr. Secretary: I hereby resign the Office of Vice President of the United States, effective immediately. Sincerely, SPIRO T. AGNEW [The Honorable Henry A. Kissinger, The Secretary of State, Washington, D.C. 20520 October 10, 1973

THE WATERGATE SCANDAL: 

THE WATERGATE SCANDAL

THE PAPERS: 

THE PAPERS The Pentagon Papers was a classified file that had the potential to discredit the U.S. Government. It described the unethical and deceitful acts of former U.S. Presidents.

Nixon sought to secretly attack political opponents.: 

Nixon sought to secretly attack political opponents. 1. Nixon surrounded himself with people who almost always agreed with him, thus protecting himself from criticism and making him more isolated. a. 'H.R.' Haldeman, Chief of Staff: Nixon's closest aide. b. John Erlichman, chief domestic policy advisor 2. 1971, Nixon's men gathered list of 200 individuals and 18 organizations that the administration regarded as enemies. a. Included Edward Kennedy, McGovern, entire black leadership in Congress, college presidents, actors such as Steve McQueen, Paul Newman, Jane Fonda, and 57 members of the media. b. Nixon asked FBI to spy on these individuals and try to discredit them. c. Ordered the IRS to harass them with tax audits. d. FBI blocked an illegal Nixon plan for secret police operation to combat antiwar movement. Would have included FBI, CIA, NSC and military intelligence. -- Nixon feared antiwar movement might undo him like it did Johnson.

CREEP -- Committee to Re-Elect the President: 

CREEP -- Committee to Re-Elect the President 1. Nixon worried about the outcome of the 1972 elections. a. Nixon's attorney general set up CREEP and began a massive illegal fund-raising campaign. -- Money was set aside in a special fund to pay for 'dirty tricks' operations against Nixon’s Democratic opponents. 2. White House 'plumbers' instructed to stop anti-Nixon leaks to the press. a. New York Times published 'Pentagon Papers' stating Gulf of Tonkin Resolution had been based on a lie and discredited Johnson's motives for continuing the war. -- Nixon feared leaks of classified documents damaging to his administration. b. CREEP’s special investigations unit, 'the plumbers,' targeted Daniel Ellsberg who had leaked the 'Pentagon Papers.' -- Broke into office of Ellsberg’s psychiatrist but found nothing embarrassing.

WHAT WAS WATERGATE?: 

WHAT WAS WATERGATE? Watergate was a U.S. scandal involving a burglary and wiretapping of the Democratic party’s campaign headquarters. On June 17, 1972, five men were caught in the offices of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate apartment and office complex in Washington, D.C. a. Burglars hired by CREEP caught breaking into Democratic Nat’l Headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. b. Nixon and his aids denied any involvement in the break-in and embarked on a massive cover-up while the public initially believed them.

'THE PLUMBERS': 

'THE PLUMBERS' The five men arrested worked for the 'Plumbers' and are also considered lower level plummers They had originally been organized to break into Elsberg’s psychiatrist’s office and discredit him after he began publishing the Pentagon Papers in 'The New York Times.'

Reporters from Washington post: 

Reporters from Washington post Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, young Washington Post journalists, broke the story. 1. Investigations revealed that two of the Watergate burglars and a White House aide involved in the burglary were employees of CREEP. -- Also discovered other illegal activities conducted by the president’s advisors. 2. 'Silence money': Nixon secretly authorized payment of more than $460,000 in CREEP funds to keep the Watergate burglars quiet about White House involvement.

THE INVESTIGATION: 

THE INVESTIGATION One year after the arrest, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, Dean, and Kleindienst resigned. Elliot Richardson, Attorney General, began a full scale investigation of the Watergate break-in.

Watergate Tapes: 

Watergate Tapes 1. Senate committee and prosecutor Archibald Cox called on Nixon to surrender tapes of conversations that might pertain to the Watergate break-in. 2. Nixon refused and claimed executive privilege and stating release of the tapes would endanger national security. 3. Saturday Night Massacre: Nixon fired two of his men for refusing to fire special prosecutor Archibald Cox before a third Nixon aide finally fired Cox. -- Public outraged

HEARINGS: 

HEARINGS May 1973, open hearings, Dean testified that Mitchell opened the break-in and that a major attempt was under way to hide White House involvement.

Slide36: 

1973, Watergate trial and Senate hearings revealed Nixon and other White House officials had covered up their involvement and pressured defendants 'to plead guilty and remain silent.' -- Nixon announced resignations of his three closest aides who were involved in Watergate.

Tapes Released: 

Tapes Released Nixon releases edited transcripts of some tapes but most incriminating portions are erased, especially critical 18 minute gap. 1. When Nixon refused to release unedited tapes, special prosecutor took case to Supreme Court. 2. U.S. v. Nixon: Court ruled unanimously that President Nixon had to release the tapes. 'Neither the doctrine of separation of powers, nor the need for confidentiality of high-level communications, without more, can sustain an absolute, unqualified Presidential privilege of immunity from judicial process under all circumstances. The President's need for complete candor and objectivity from advisors calls for great deference from the courts. However, when the privilege depends solely on the broad, undifferentiated claim of public interest in the confidentiality of such conversations, a confrontation with other values arises.'—Chief Justice Warren Burger The Supreme Court has the final voice in determining constitutional questions; no person, not even the President of the United States, is completely above law; and the president cannot use executive privilege as an excuse to withhold evidence that is 'demonstrably relevant in a criminal trial.'

Impeachment proceedings: 

Impeachment proceedings 1. July 30, House committee voted to recommend impeachment of President Nixon on three counts: a. Obstructing justice by trying to cover up the role of the White House in the Watergate burglary. b. Violating the rights of U.S. citizens by using the FBI, CIA, and IRS to harass critics. c. Defying congressional authority by refusing to turn over the tapes. 2. August 5, Nixon handed over the tapes which revealed a White House cover up -- Impeachment charges seemed certain.

Nixon resigns as President (August 7, 1974): 

Nixon resigns as President (August 7, 1974) -- Following day, Gerald Ford sworn in as president. Ford Pardons Nixon in September for any crimes he may have committed while president. 1. Many Americans outraged that Nixon escaped justice. a. Questioned if a deal had been made between Nixon and Ford. b. In light of Vietnam, Americans grew even more skeptical of their gov’t. 2. 31 Nixon administration officials were convicted and went to prison for Watergate-related offenses. 3. The pardon probably cost Gerald Ford the presidential election of 1976.

The "Imperial Presidency": 

The 'Imperial Presidency' A. World War II on, presidents gradually gained more power that belonged to Congress. 1. Franklin Roosevelt a. 'Court packing' scheme sought to strengthen FDR at expense of Supreme Court. b. WWII: FDR made treaties with foreign nations without the advice or consent or the Senate (Destroyer-Bases deal, Atlantic Charter, Yalta Conference, etc.) 2. Truman fought war in Korea without formal declaration of war by Congress 3. Johnson sent troops into Vietnam without a formal congressionaldeclaration of war B. Nixon took the trend to the next step. 1. Impounded funds for federal programs he opposed, defying the constitutional mandate that Congress control spending. 2. Ordered U.S. troops to invade Cambodia without seeking congressional approval. 3. Used FBI and IRS against political opponents 4. Watergate scandal: tried to sabotage Democratic Party in 1972 5. By 1970s, some critics called the constitutional presidency 'the Imperial Presidency.' C. Congress took back power from the presidency in light of Vietnam and Watergate 1. War Powers Act (1973): Required the president to consult with Congress before sending troops into action for 90 days or more. 2. 1974, Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act prohibited impounding of federal money by the president. (response to Nixon's impounding of funds) 3. Federal Election Campaign Act of 1972 set limits on campaign contributions (response to CREEP) 4. Privacy Act (Extended the Freedom of Information Act (1966) – (response to Nixon's abuse of the FBI powers) a. Allowed citizens to have prompt access to the files that the government may have gathered on them. b. Required gov’t to prove its case for classification when attempting to withhold information on grounds of national security. 5. Ronald Reagan: Iran-Contra Scandal (1987) -- continuation of 'imperial presidency'? a. Diverted money from secret sale of weapons to Iran to Nicaraguan 'Contras' -- Congress had expressly forbidden U.S. money be sent to the 'Contras' b. Became biggest scandal of Reagan administration.

Gerald Ford’s Presidency: 

Gerald Ford’s Presidency A. Pardon of Nixon brought immediate controversy in Sept., 1974 -- Nixon accepted offer yet admitted no wrongdoing; had not yet been charged with a crime. B. Economy plagued with 'stagflation' 1. Ford called for voluntary restraints on inflation and asked citizens to wear WIN (Whip Inflation Now) buttons. -- Inflation did drop from 12% to 5% in 1976 but drop was temporary. 2. Ford asked for tax cuts to stimulate business and argued against spending for social programs. -- Vetoed more than 50 bills during his brief presidency.

President Fords Pardon Speech: 

President Fords Pardon Speech Ladies and gentlemen: I have come to a decision which I felt I should tell you and all of my fellow American citizens, as soon as I was certain in my own mind and in my own conscience that it is the right thing to do. I have learned already in this office that the difficult decisions always come to this desk. I must admit that many of them do not look at all the same as the hypothetical questions that I have answered freely and perhaps too fast on previous occasions. My customary policy is to try and get all the facts and to consider the opinions of my countrymen and to take counsel with my most valued friends. But these seldom agree, and in the end, the decision is mine. To procrastinate, to agonize, and to wait for a more favorable turn of events that may never come or more compelling external pressures that may as well be wrong as right, is itself a decision of sorts and a weak and potentially dangerous course for a President to follow. I have promised to uphold the Constitution, to do what is right as God gives me to see the right, and to do the very best that I can for America. I have asked your help and your prayers, not only when I became President but many times since. The Constitution is the supreme law of our land and it governs our actions as citizens. Only the laws of God, which govern our consciences, are superior to it. As we are a nation under God, so I am sworn to uphold our laws with the help of God. And I have sought such guidance and searched my own conscience with special diligence to determine the right thing for me to do with respect to my predecessor in this place, Richard Nixon, and his loyal wife and family. Theirs is an American tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must. There are no historic or legal precedents to which I can turn in this matter, none that precisely fit the circumstances of a private citizen who has resigned the Presidency of the United States. But it is common knowledge that serious allegations and accusations hang like a sword over our former President's head, threatening his health as he tries to reshape his life, a great part of which was spent in the service of this country and by the mandate of its people. After years of bitter controversy and divisive national debate, I have been advised, and I am compelled to conclude that many months and perhaps more years will have to pass before Richard Nixon could obtain a fair trial by jury in any jurisdiction of the United States under governing decisions of the Supreme Court. I deeply believe in equal justice for all Americans, whatever their station or former station. The law, whether human or divine, is no respecter of persons; but the law is a respecter of reality. The facts, as I see them, are that a former President of the United States, instead of enjoying equal treatment with any other citizen accused of violating the law, would be cruelly and excessively penalized either in preserving the presumption of his innocence or in obtaining a speedy determination of his guilt in order to repay a legal debt to society. During this long period of delay and potential litigation, ugly passions would again be aroused. And our people would again be polarized in their opinions. And the credibility of our free institutions of government would again be challenged at home and abroad. In the end, the courts might well hold that Richard Nixon had been denied due process, and the verdict of history would even be more inconclusive with respect to those charges arising out of the period of his Presidency, of which I am presently aware. But it is not the ultimate fate of Richard Nixon that most concerns me, though surely it deeply troubles every decent and every compassionate person. My concern is the immediate future of this great country. In this, I dare not depend upon my personal sympathy as a longtime friend of the former President, nor my professional judgment as a lawyer, and I do not. As President, my primary concern must always be the greatest good of all the people of the United States whose servant I am. As a man, my first consideration is to be true to my own convictions and my own conscience. My conscience tells me clearly and certainly that I cannot prolong the bad dreams that continue to reopen a chapter that is closed. My conscience tells me that only I, as President, have the constitutional power to firmly shut and seal this book. My conscience tells me it is my duty, not merely to proclaim domestic tranquility but to use every means that I have to insure it. I do believe that the buck stops here, that I cannot rely upon public opinion polls to tell me what is right. I do believe that right makes might and that if I am wrong, ten angels swearing I was right would make no difference. I do believe, with all my heart and mind and spirit, that I, not as President but as a humble servant of God, will receive justice without mercy if I fail to show mercy. Finally, I feel that Richard Nixon and his loved ones have suffered enough and will continue to suffer, no matter what I do, no matter what we, as a great and good nation, can do together to make his goal of peace come true. Now, therefore, I, Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States, pursuant to the pardon power conferred upon me by Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution, have granted and by these presents do grant a full, free, and absolute pardon unto Richard Nixon for all offenses against the United States which he, Richard Nixon, has committed or may have committed or taken part in during the period from July (January) 20, 1969, through August 9, 1974. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand this eighth day of September, in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and seventy-four, and of the Independence of the United States of America the one hundred and ninety-ninth. Gerald R. Ford - September 8, 1974

Foreign Affairs under Ford: 

Foreign Affairs under Ford South Vietnam (Saigon) fell to North Vietnam in April 1975 1. Ford had failed to get from Congress approval to provide more arms for South Vietnam. 2. To many Americans it appeared U.S. involvement in Vietnam had been tragically in vain. D. The Mayaguez 1. May 12, 1975, Cambodia, seized by communists 2 weeks earlier, seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in the Gulf of Thailand. 2. After demanding the ship and crew be freed, Ford ordered a Marine assault on Tang Island, where the ship had been taken. 3. Ship and crew of 39 released but 38 Marines were killed.

Election of 1976: 

Election of 1976 A. Nominees 1. Ford narrowly defeated Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. -- Ford plagued by his pardon of Nixon and seeming denial of Soviet domination of Eastern Europe. 2. Democrats nominated Jimmy Carter, former governor of Georgia, and peanut farmer. a. Ran as an outsider from Washington (like Reagan did in 1980) -- Emphasized integrity and lack of Washington connections; born-again Baptist; 'I’ll never lie to you' b. Carter a conservative Democrat who questioned affirmative government and welcomed increased role of religion in public life. B. Result 1. Carter d. Ford narrowly 297 to 240; 51% of the popular vote. a. Swept every state except Virginia. b. 97% of blacks voted for Carter. 2. Large Democratic majorities in both houses

President carter’s Inaugural Address: 

President carter’s Inaugural Address January 20, 1977 : For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land. In this outward and physical ceremony we attest once again to the inner and spiritual strength of our Nation. As my high school teacher, Miss Julia Coleman, used to say, we must adjust to changing times and still hold to unchanging principles. Here before me is the Bible used in the inauguration of our first President, in 1789, and I have just taken the oath of office on the Bible my mother gave me a few years ago, opened to a timeless admonition from the ancient prophet Micah : He hath showed thee, O' man, what is good; and what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God. This inauguration ceremony marks a new beginning, a new dedication within our Government, and a new spirit among us all. A President may sense and proclaim that new spirit, but only a people can provide it. Two centuries ago our Nation's birth was a milestone in the long quest for freedom, but the bold and brilliant dream which excited the founders of this Nation still awaits its consummation. I have no new dream to set forth today, but rather urge a fresh faith in the old dream. Ours was the first society openly to define itself in terms of both spirituality and of human liberty. It is that unique self definition which has given us an exceptional appeal, but it also imposes on us a special obligation, to take on those moral duties which, when assumed, seem invariably to be in our own best interests. You have given me a great responsibility--to stay close to you, to be worthy of you, and to exemplify what you are. Let us create together a new national spirit of unity and trust. Your strength can compensate for my weakness, and your wisdom can help to minimize my mistakes. Let us learn together and laugh together and work together and pray together, confident that in the end we will triumph together in the right. The American dream endures. We must once again have full faith in our country and in one another. I believe America can be better. We can be even stronger than before. Let our recent mistakes bring a resurgent commitment to the basic principles of our Nation, for we know that if we despise our own government we have no future. We recall in special times when we have stood briefly, but magnificently, united. In those times no prize was beyond our grasp. But we cannot dwell upon remembered glory. We cannot afford to drift. We reject the prospect of failure or mediocrity or an inferior quality of life for any person. Our Government must at the same time be both competent and compassionate. We have already found a high degree of personal liberty, and we are now struggling to enhance equality of opportunity. Our commitment to human rights must be absolute, our laws fair, our natural beauty preserved; the powerful must not persecute the weak, and human dignity must be enhanced. We have learned that more is not necessarily better, that even our great Nation has its recognized limits, and that we can neither answer all questions nor solve all problems. We cannot afford to do everything, nor can we afford to lack boldness as we meet the future. So, together, in a spirit of individual sacrifice for the common good, we must simply do our best. Our Nation can be strong abroad only if it is strong at home. And we know that the best way to enhance freedom in other lands is to demonstrate here that our democratic system is worthy of emulation. To be true to ourselves, we must be true to others. We will not behave in foreign places so as to violate our rules and standards here at home, for we know that the trust which our Nation earns is essential to our strength. The world itself is now dominated by a new spirit. Peoples more numerous and more politically aware are craving and now demanding their place in the sun; not just for the benefit of their own physical condition, but for basic human rights. The passion for freedom is on the rise. Tapping this new spirit, there can be no nobler nor more ambitious task for America to undertake on this day of a new beginning than to help shape a just and peaceful world that is truly humane. We are a strong nation, and we will maintain strength so sufficient that it need not be proven in combat; a quiet strength based not merely on the size of an arsenal, but on the nobility of ideas. We will be ever vigilant and never vulnerable, and we will fight our wars against poverty, ignorance, and injustice; for those are the enemies against which our forces can be honorably marshaled. We are a purely idealistic Nation, but let no one confuse our idealism with weakness. Because we are free we can never be indifferent to the fate of freedom elsewhere. Our moral sense dictates a clearcut preference for these societies which share with us an abiding respect for individual human rights. We do not seek to intimidate, but it is clear that a world which others can dominate with impunity would be inhospitable to decency and a threat to the well being of all people. The world is still engaged in a massive armaments race designed to ensure continuing equivalent strength among potential adversaries. We pledge perseverance and wisdom in our efforts to limit the world's armaments to those necessary for each nation's own domestic safety. And we will move this year a step toward ultimate goal, the elimination of all nuclear weapons from this Earth. We urge all other people to join us, for success can mean life instead of death. Within us, the people of the United States, there is evident a serious and purposeful rekindling of confidence. And I join in the hope that when my time as your President has ended, people might say this about our Nation : That we had remembered the words of Micah and renewed our search for humility, mercy, and justice; That we had torn down the barriers that separated those of different race and region and religion, and where there had been mistrust, built unity, with a respect for diversity; That we had found productive work for those able to perform it; That we had strengthened the American family, which is the basis of our society; That we had ensured respect for the law, and equal treatment under the law, for the weak and the powerful, for the rich and the poor; and That we had enabled our people to be proud of their own Government once again. I would hope that the nations of the world might say that we had built a lasting peace, built not on weapons of war but on international policies which reflect our own most precious values. These are not just my goals, and they will not be my accomplishments, but the affirmation of our Nation's continuing moral strength and our belief in an undiminished, ever expanding American dream. - Jimmy Carter, 1977

Jimmy Carter’s presidency: 

Jimmy Carter’s presidency Domestic policy

Domestic achievements: 

Domestic achievements 1. Amnesty -- Pardoned 10,000 draft evaders during Vietnam era (campaign pledge) 2. Created the Department of Education (and the Department of Energy -- see below) 3. Placed the civil service on a merit basis and reduced Civil Service System 4. Environment: created Superfund

Energy: 

Energy 1. 1977, created Dept. of Energy at the cabinet level (in light of recent energy crisis) 2. Proposed raising the tax on gasoline and taxing autos that used fuel inefficiently in order to reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil. -- Got only a small portion of this bill through Congress. 3. 2nd fuel shortage in 1979 exacerbated the nation’s energy woes. -- Spurred by the Iranian Revolution and demise of the Shah.

Economy: 

Economy (Stagflation continued) 1. Convinced Congress to pass an $18 billion tax cut in 1978. 2. 1978, proposed voluntary wage and price guidelines to combat inflation a. Somewhat successful but didn’t apply to oil, housing, and food. b. By 1980 inflation was 12% 3. Federal Reserve Board tightened money supply in order to reduce inflation but interest rates soared20%! -- Sales of automobiles and houses suffered which increased unemployment. 4. By 1980, unemployment reached 7.5%

Environment Deregulation Draft: 

Environment Deregulation Draft Environment 1. Created 'superfund' for the cleanup of chemical waste dumps. 2. Established controls over strip mining 3. Protected 100 million acres of Alaskan wilderness from development 4. Three-mile Island nuclear accident occurred in 1979 E. Deregulation 1. Air Transportation Deregulation Act (1978): Ended government regulation of airline fares and routes 2. Action symbolizes Carter as a conservative Democrat. (Perhaps the most conservative since Grover Cleveland) F. Peacetime Draft Registration: 18 year-olds required to register with the Selective Service System to prepare the nation militarily; no one actually drafted.

President Carter: 

President Carter Foreign policy

Humanitarian diplomacy: 

Humanitarian diplomacy -- Sought to base foreign policy on human rights but was criticized for inconsistency and lack of attention to US interests. 1. Verbally lashed out at Cuba and Uganda for human rights violations. 2. Cut foreign aid to Uruguay, Argentina, and Ethiopia. 3. Championed black majority in South Africa and denounced Apartheid. 4. Did not punish South Korea or Philippines -- too vital to U.S. security. -- Some saw this as hypocritical. 5. Humanitarian diplomacy ultimately ineffective.

Panama Canal treaty: 

Panama Canal treaty Provided for transfer of ownership of the Canal to Panama in 1999 and guaranteed its neutrality.

Camp David Accords: 

Camp David Accords (September 17, 1978) -- perhaps Carter's greatest accomplishment 1. Another conflict imminent between Egypt and Israel. 2. Carter invited President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel to a summit conference at Camp David. 3. After 13 days, Carter persuaded them to sign an accord that seemed to place the two countries on a solid road toward peace. 4. Palestinian Liberation Front (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat would use terrorism to protest the existence of Israel. 5. Sadat eventually assassinated by Muslim extremists.

Recognition of China: 

Recognition of China 1. US ended official recognition of Taiwan and in 1979 recognized the People’s Republic of China. 2. Conservatives called the decision a 'sell out' 3. UN had recognized Communist China in 1972 as a member of UN Security Council

Cold War politics: 

Cold War politics 1. SALT II a. SALT I treaty due to expire in late 1977. -- Carter called for a renewing of the SALT accords and extending them to include real reductions in nuclear armaments. b. 1979, Carter signed SALT II with the USSR. c. Not ratified by the Senate in light of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. 2. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (end of détente), December 1979 a. Carter’s proclaimed U.S. would 'use any means necessary, including force,' to protect the Persian Gulf against Soviet aggression. b. Stopped shipments of grain and certain advanced technology to the USSR c. Withdrew from SALT II from the senate d. Boycotted the 1980 summer Olympics held in Moscow. -- In retaliation, Moscow boycotted 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. e. Soviets met stiff resistance in Afghanistan and the war became 'Russia’s Vietnam'; Soviet forces pulled out a decade later

Iran Hostage Crisis: 

Iran Hostage Crisis Biggest crisis of Carter's presidency and cost him election of 1980. 1. The Iranian Revolution a. In 1978, a revolution forced the Shah of Iran to flee the country. b. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a religious leader, became Iran’s leader. -- Reversed many of Shah’s western reforms and established conservative Islamic social order. c. Revolutionaries called the U.S. 'the Great Satan' for its support of money and arms to the Shah of Iran. -- CIA had put the Shah in power in 1953 after it overthrew Moussadegh supported the Shah’s regime until his ouster. 2. American hostages a. Carter allowed the Shah to come to the U.S. for medical treatment in Oct. 1979 after Shah was in exile. b. In response, about 400 Iranians (many of them students) broke into the U.S. embassy in Tehran on November 4, taking the occupants captive. -- Demanded Shah be returned to Iran for trial and that his wealth be confiscated and given to Iran. c. Carter froze Iranian assets in the U.S. and initiated a trade embargo against Iran. d. Iranians eventually freed the black and women hostages but kept 52 others. e. April 1980, Carter ordered a Marine rescue attempt but it failed after several helicopters broke down and another crashed, killing 8 men ('Operation Eagle Claw') f. Carter perceived as weak, indecisive, and ineffective and suffered for it in the 1980 elections. 3. Release of the hostages after 444 days. a. After extensive negotiations with Iran Carter released Iranian assets and the hostages were freed on January 20, 1980. b. As a final insult to Carter, hostages were released after Reagan took his inaugural oath so that Carter could not solve the crisis during his presidency.