Developmental Project Epperson

Gender Role Socialization : 

An exploration into how the acquisition of our gender role affects our development Gender Role Socialization Kimberly Epperson Drexel University Developmental Psychology May 2010

Topics of Consideration : 

Topics of Consideration History of Gender Roles What is Gender? Differences Between Gender and Sex What are Gender Roles? American Characteristics of Gender Biological Influences on Gender Case Study: David Environmental Influences on Gender Gender-Schema Theory Schools of Thought on Gender Gender Identity Disorder Gender Role Stereotyping Reduction of Gender Role Stereotyping

History of Gender Roles“Men have always been afraid that women could get along without them.” – Margaret Mead : 

History of Gender Roles“Men have always been afraid that women could get along without them.” – Margaret Mead For obvious reasons, there have always been two sexes in the human species, and with the necessity of having two sexes comes the beginnings of gender roles. Gender roles date back to rudimentary societies, such as hunting and gathering societies. Women were not strong enough to hunt, due ot their biological formation, and thus their role was to stay near camps and gather or tend to farms. As males were often away for days or weeks at a time, and could not hunt with children present, it was the woman’s role to tend to the children and “household” activities. Biologically, women are primed to nurture children. They create a bond with the child by carrying them in their womb, and by then nursing them. Until the invention of breast pumps and refrigeration, the only way to provide breast milk to an infant was through the mother, thus necessitation the mother being present while the infant was young. Since work is also a necessity in life, this leaves the male to be the one who traditionally holds a job. (Bland) In today’s day and age there is less reason for gender roles to be as specific as they have been in the past for many reasons: Jobs outside of the home are no longer purely manual, such as hunting. Many jobs may be held outside of the home by women. Neurological evidence continues to prove that women are not intellectually less competent than men, thus quashing previous thought that men were more competent to attend university and hold a job. It is now possible for men to stay at home with infants due to the ability to store breast milk, male maternity leave, and research proving how important the father’s influence is in a child’s life.

Defining Gender : 

Defining Gender Gender is defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary as “the behavioral, cultural or psychological traits typically associated with one sex.” In his textbook Psychology David G. Meyers writes that gender is “the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.” Gender is not to be confused with the term “sex” which is defined as “either of the two major forms of individuals that occur in many species and that are distinguished respectively as male or female especially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structures.” (Merriam-Webster) The main difference between the terms sex and gender are that sex is a biologically based characteristic that is unchanged by the environment, while gender is often a socially guided term.

Gender Roles: A set of expected behaviors for males and for females. : 

Gender Roles: A set of expected behaviors for males and for females. Once the difference between sex and gender has been defined, gender roles can be discussed. While sex is almost indisputable, gender has less defined boundaries, and gender roles often vary from culture to culture. As noted in the definition above, gender roles are based on behaviors, which are subjective to situation, culture and various other factors.

Characteristics of GenderThe characteristics of gender vary from culture to culture, so we will be looking at those typically displayed in the United States. : 

Characteristics of GenderThe characteristics of gender vary from culture to culture, so we will be looking at those typically displayed in the United States. Masculine Characteristics: Aggressive Strong/tough emotionally and physically Hard Working Head of Household Feminine Characteristics Emotional responsive to others Mother Caring “The distinction between male and female serves as a basic organizing principle for every human culture. Although societies differ in the specific tasks they assign to the two sexes, all societies allocate adult roles on the basis of sex and anticipate this allocation in the socialization of their children.” (Bem 354)

Biological Influences on Gender : 

Biological Influences on Gender

Case Study: Biological Influences on Gender : 

Case Study: Biological Influences on Gender There is constant debate over which plays more of a role in how we develop; nature, or nurture. Whereas our environment certainly shapes how we interact with others, and who we become, there is often no straying from certain biologically ingrained parts of our “self.” Here we look at the case of David and how his biological gender affected his gender identity throughout his life. David (originally named Bruce) was born a normal young boy with an identical twin brother, however, in a circumcision accident his penis was removed. Taking a radical, never before done step, his parents elected to have him physically altered into a girl with sex reassignment surgery done be John Money. His testicles were removed and his genitals were sculpted to look like a girl. While growing up David was not told of his genetic sex, however, as hard as his parents tried to raise him “as a girl” he never seemed to fit in. His childhood was troubled by the fact that he looked like a young girl until, his twin brother recalls he moved or spoke. Even when given only female toys and clothing David preferred his brother’s clothing and toys, and when encouraged to play with girls David was often rejected by them. In adolescence his parents put him on estrogen therapy to help him grow breasts and hips, however, he was so ashamed to have them he began overeating to hide them. This caused him to look non-gendered, and thus created more problems for him at school. David was finally told of his accident at the age of 14 at the recommendation of his therapist. David recalls reacting with relief and wanted to return to his biological sex immediately. His breasts were surgically removed and a penis was constructed, and David also began testosterone injections to masculinize his body. He eventually married a single mom with three children, however, his troubled past never left him and he eventually committed suicide.

Repercussions of Denying Biological Sex : 

Repercussions of Denying Biological Sex As evidenced by David’s tragic childhood and fatal ending, denying ones’ genetic predisposition to a certain sex can cause emotional turmoil in an individual. David never felt feminine because this conflicted with his biological drives. Even after his reacquisition of male anatomy, David’s gender identity was so skewed that he could not reconcile with himself. This case also shows the repercussions of forcing gender roles on an individual. Had David’s parents allowed him to express his own interests as a child, rather than forcing him to behave “like a girl,” the battle between male and female that he experienced inside would have subsided, and he would have has a better chance at developing his own identity and gender role throughout life.

Environmental Influences on Gender Roles : 

Environmental Influences on Gender Roles

Gender Schema Theory: An information-processing approach to gender typing that explains how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender-role development. : 

Gender Schema Theory: An information-processing approach to gender typing that explains how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender-role development. Schema – a specific psychological structure, or organized way of making sense of experience, that changes with age. This theory provides the child with a highly active role in developing their gender due to the fact that children are thought to seek out information that will further their understanding of their male/female schemas. Their role as a male or female is shaped by the way they categorize their experiences into gender based schemas. As children become older their schemas become continually more complex due to the higher quantity of experiences that must be accommodated into the simple categories that have previously been created.

Psychoanalytic Theory : 

Psychoanalytic Theory According to Sigmund Freud, children learn their gender role through observation of their same-sex parent, and other adults of the same sex. In this theory it is thought that the child wishes to emulate their same-sex parent due to the fact that they are the same sex, as well as the fact that the child wants to be accepted and loved by the opposite sex parent. While it is commonly accepted that children learn many behaviors from watching their same-sex parent, this theory contains an element of infantile sexuality that pervades much of Freud’s work, and was cited as being the reason for such a strong draw to the same-sex parent. It is currently discounted that the child disregards their observations of the other parent, and is now more commonly believed that they accumulate behaviors from both parents.

Social Learning Theory : 

Social Learning Theory Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of children's imitation of the behavior of others . This theory differentiates from Psychoanalytic, however, in that rather than the child’s imitation stemming from their sexual desire for their opposite-sex parent, they stem from a reward/punishment system in place for “acting” like a boy or a girl. Thus, this theory is highly nurture driven. In his famous Bobo Doll experiment Bandura showed exactly how much peer and observational influence affects children, as demonstrated by their willingness to attack a Bobo doll after seeing an adult do the same thing. While not a direct study of gender roles, this does provide strong evidence for the power of observational learning between children and adults. This theory represents the child playing a passive role in their gender development, a criticism not shared with Cognitive Developmental theory.

Cognitive Developmental Theory : 

Cognitive Developmental Theory This theory maintains that before behavior begins to be gender specific the child must first develop a self-perception of themselves as either male or female. Kohlberg divided the process of establishing one’s gender into stages. The first stage is that of gender identity in which the child is able to label themselves and those around him by their sex. This stage is usually reached by age two. The second stage is gender stability, in which the child realizes that sex is constant throughout time. This stage is usually reached by age four. One key part of this stage is that in naming males and females the child looks for visual cues, such as hair length and clothing style. Thus, at this stage, a woman with short hair and a suit may be labeled a man by a young child. The third and final stage is gender constancy, in which children begin to understand that gender is independent of physical characteristics. As one can see, Kohlberg felt that much of the acquisition of gender was done through maturation. Kohlberg’s theory has received much criticism for simply describing the acquisition of gender roles rather than explaining why these processes happen. However, the theory is applauded for viewing the child as taking an active role in their development, something that is valued in many cultures, and allows the child to develop as an individual, thus making it easier to break stereotypical roles.

Problems with Gender Identity : 

Problems with Gender Identity Sometimes it is too difficult for an individual to reconcile between their desires in life and their set gender roles, and in turn the gender identity of the individual does not develop properly. The following are possible disorders of gender identity: One of the most common gender disorders is gender identity disorder, in which the individual is insistent that they are of the opposite gender from the biological sex. In children and adults the disorder is manifested by four or more of the following: Repeatedly stated desire to be, or insistence that he or she is, the other sex. In boys, preference for cross-dressing or simulating female attire; In girls, insistence on wearing only stereotypical masculine clothing. Strong and persistent preferences for cross-sex roles in make believe play or persistent fantasies of being the other sex. Intense desire to participate in the stereotypical games and pastimes of the other sex. Strong preference for playmates of the other sex.

Problems with Gender Roles : 

Problems with Gender Roles Often, in the process of forming gender roles children can fall into the stereotypes that their gender role has. A child’s cognitive limitations lead them to assume that culture is what determines their sex, and therefore these influences can shape their role in ways that limit their development as an individual. Examples include: Fostering the aggressive stereotype in males can lead to higher prison rates for males. Fostering a young girl wearing makeup and focusing on her looks can harbor the stereotype that women only have worth if they are physically attractive.

Reducing Gender Stereotyping : 

Reducing Gender Stereotyping Reduction of gender stereotyping can begin at a very young age, and therefore it should begin at this age. Young children do most of their learning through observation so watching the actions of their parents and teachers are the main ways that children learn gender stereotypes. Ways to break gender stereotypes include: Parents can switch roles in the home such as taking turns making dinner, bathing the children or driving the family car. Children can be given a variety of toys such as giving a girl a truck or a boy a doll. Teachers can put both genders in adult-structured and unstructured activities, therefore giving both genders the skills to handle both situations.

In Conclusion : 

In Conclusion Developing the identity of male of female and thereby understanding the roles that go along with it is a complex and lifelong experience that begins as soon as an infant begins to have experiences with the outside world. Problems developing a firm sense of male or female often results in emotional problems later in life, whereas adhering too strictly to a gender role may have the same affect. As gender roles change throughout society and time we must continue to adapt to what is expected of us, and how we cope with identifying ourselves.

Slide 20: 

References: Bandura, Albert. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, 1977. Bem, Sandra Lipsitz. Gender Schema theory: A Cognitive Account of Gender Typing. Psychological review. 1981 Vol. 88 No. 4, 354-364. Berk, Laura E. Development Through the Lifespan. 5th Ed. Allyn and Bacon. 2010. Bland. J. (2001) About Gender. http://www.gender.org.uk/about/00_prefc.htm http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gender McHale, Susan M. “family Context and Gender Role Socialization in Middle Childhood: Comparing Girls to Boys and Sisters to Brothers.” Child Development. Vol. 7 No. 4. July 1999. Pg. 990-1004.

Slide 21: 

References cont. Myers, David G. Psychology: Egith Edition in Modules. Worth Pub. 2007. Sammons, Aldan. Gender;Cognitive Theory. Psychlotron.org.uk. http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/developmental/AS_AQB_gender_CognitiveBasics.pdf. May 30, 2010. Web. Weitzman, Lenore J. “Sex Role Socialization in Picture Books for Preschool Children.” The American Journal of Sociology. Vol 77, No. 6. May 1972. pp. 1125-1150.