Presentation 4 Consciousness

Introduction to Psychology PSY101:

Introduction to Psychology PSY101 Dr Byron Gaist American College Spring 2011

Lesson Plan CONSCIOUSNESS:

Lesson Plan CONSCIOUSNESS SUBJECT: CONSCIOUSNESS AIMS: To gain an understanding of ordinary consciousness as well as altered states of consciousness. To reflect on our own conscious experience. OBJECTIVE: To cover material of textbook, ch.6

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness The mind is capable of becoming aware of what is going on in the farthest reaches of outer space, but it is also capable of becoming aware of itself – and becoming aware of being aware of itself, etc. etc.! There is no generally agreed-upon theory of consciousness; there exist several scientific theories about what makes us conscious. Many observers believe that we are very close to an explanation of consciousness (Crick, 1994)

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness DEFINITION OF CONSCIOUSNESS (Kihlstrom, 1984) Consciousness involves: Monitoring ourselves and our environment so that percepts, memories and thoughts are represented in awareness, and Controlling ourselves and our environment so that we are able to initiate and terminate behavioural and cognitive activities.

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness MONITORING The body’s sensory systems process information from the environment and within our own bodies Our consciousness has to focus on some stimuli and ignore others. The information which is selectively attended to often concerns CHANGE, e.g. while you are reading this, a loud noise from outside the room distracts your attention. Events that are important to our survival, e.g. hunger, are usually given priority attention.

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness CONTROLLING Consciousness is useful for planning, initiating and guiding action. Planning involves envisioning future possibilities, alternative “scenarios”, making choices (Johnson-Laird, 1988)

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness Mental events include both conscious and nonconscious processes Many decisions are conducted entirely outside of consciousness, and many problems are solved without our being aware of the process e.g. the solution to a problem may occur to us while we are working on something else

Aspects of consciousness:

Aspects of consciousness We also have peripheral attention , e.g. we are busy and not aware of the clock striking, but then when our attention is drawn to the clock, we can mentally ‘go back’ and count the number of strikes. “Lunch-line effect” (Farthing, 1992) You are talking with a friend while waiting in line for your lunch in a cafeteria, and suddenly you hear your name mentioned in another conversation elsewhere in the room. If you were not in some sense ‘monitoring’ the other conversation the whole time, you would not have overheard your name.

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious We cannot be aware of our entire knowledge and store of memories at once. Many memories and thoughts that are not part of consciousness at this moment, can be called up when needed. PRECONSCIOUS MEMORIES are memories that are accessible to consciousness (but not in consciousness right now) E.g. the meaning of words, the layout of a city, what I did last summer Also automated skills, e.g. driving a car

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious THE UNCONSCIOUS Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that there is a portion of the mind which contains memories, impulses and desires that are not accessible to consciousness . This is known as the unconscious . Emotionally painful memories are repressed to the unconscious, but they still influence our behaviour according to Freud.

Freudian model of the psyche:

Freudian model of the psyche The psyche can be compared to an iceberg NOTICE THAT Most of the ‘iceberg’ is underwater, i.e. for Freud most of our psychological material is below the level of consciousness (sea-level) What is preconscious can be recalled by effort. Freud claimed that what is completely unconscious can only ever be partially inferred by psychoanalysis

Freudian model of the psyche:

Freudian model of the psyche Freudian slips are unintentional remarks which supposedly reveal hidden impulses e.g. we say “I’m sad you’re better”, when we wanted to say “I’m glad you’re better”. Freudian theory has been heavily criticised in psychology e.g. philosopher Karl Popper (1902 – 1994) called psychoanalysis a pseudoscience , because it is not testable and its claims cannot be refuted

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious Whatever the limitations of the Freudian model, most psychologists today agree that there are memories and mental processes that are inaccessible to conscious introspection. Perhaps Freud placed too much emphasis on the emotional aspect of these memories and processes (Kihlstrom, 1987) E.g. we are consciously aware of the size and distance of an object, but not able to become aware of the mental calculations by which we know this (Velmans, 1991).

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious STEREOTYPES and attitudes Bargh, Chen & Burrows (1996) They set up an experiment to illustrate how cues from the environment can influence our behaviour without us realizing it. Participants were given a “language test” where they had to decipher scrambled sentences Some sentences contained words which subconsciously evoke stereotypes about the elderly, e.g. ‘forgetful’, ‘bingo’, ‘retired’ Participants who were exposed to these sentences afterwards walked to the door of the laboratory more slowly than participants who were not exposed to such words!

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious AUTOMATICITY AND DISSOCIATION Some activities are practiced so frequently that they become habitual or automatic E.g. driving a car, playing a musical instrument Notice that the activities initially required concentration and conscious attention A pianist is having a conversation while playing. Suddenly he hits a wrong key, and temporarily needs to return attention to the task i.e. the control was always there, but it was DISSOCIATED from consciousness

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious Pierre Janet (1859 – 1947) French psychiatrist Formulated the concept of dissociation Dissociation occurs under certain conditions, when some thoughts and actions become split off from the rest of consciousness, and continue to function outside awareness.

Preconscious & the Unconscious:

Preconscious & the Unconscious Dissociation and Repression Notice that in dissociation, memories and thoughts are ultimately accessible to consciousness, just temporarily split off. In Freudian repression, the memories cannot be brought to consciousness. They must instead be inferred by the psychoanalyst from the patient’s signs or symptoms. Mild examples of dissociation include temporarily putting a stressful situation out of our minds in order to function effectively, or lapsing into daydream when bored. More extreme examples of dissociation include dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality)

Altered States of Consciousness:

Altered States of Consciousness An Altered State of Consciousness (ASC) exists whenever there is a change from an ordinary pattern of mental functioning to a state that seems different to the person experiencing the change, e.g. Daydreaming Sleep Dreaming Meditation Hypnosis Drug states

Altered States of Consciousness:

Altered States of Consciousness William James (1842 -1910) “ Our normal waking consciousness, rational consciousness we call it, is but one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different .”

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams Sleep Research Some sleep research uses devices which measure electrical changes on the scalp (due to brain activity) as well as eye movements during dreaming. The device which records these electrical changes is the electroencephalogr aph , and its output is an electroencephalogr am (EEG) . The fluctuations are represented on a sheet of paper as ‘brain waves’

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams STAGES OF SLEEP Analysis of brain wave patterns shows 5 stages of sleep. 4 stages are differing depths of sleep One stage is known as REM sleep (rapid eye movement)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams STAGES OF SLEEP Awake but relaxed, closed eyes: 8-12Hz, known as alpha waves Drifts into sleep: Stage 1 ; waves become less regular and reduced in amplitude Slightly deeper sleep: Stage 2 ; ‘spindles’ appear in the brain wave, which are rhythmic bursts of 12-16 Hz Deeper sleep: Stage 3 and Stage 4 show slow brain waves (1-2 Hz). These are known as delta waves. The sleeper may ignore a loud sound at this stage, and generally wakes up with difficulty unless something personal occurs (e.g. hears own name, or baby crying)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams STAGES OF SLEEP REM Sleep occurs after an hour or so of being asleep The EEG is even more active than when we are awake, but we do not wake up. Eye movements are so pronounced that we can often see the eyes moving under the closed eyelids This stage is known as REM Sleep; the other four stages are known as non-REM (NREM) sleep

STAGES OF SLEEP:

STAGES OF SLEEP

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams In the first part of the night, we quickly go into deep sleep After about 70 minutes we have our first REM phase. Every night we have four or five distinct REM stages Deeper stages of sleep decrease as the night progresses, and REM phases increase in frequency until we finally wake up.

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams The sleep cycle pattern varies with age: Newborn infants spend almost half their sleeping time in REM sleep By age 5 this drops to 20-25% of the sleeping time. In old age, this changes to 18% or less. Older people also tend to experience less Stage 3 and 4 sleep, and wake up more frequently and for longer periods (Gillin, 1985)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams REM and NREM sleep During NREM sleep, the body is very relaxed; while during REM sleep, the heart rate increases and the brain’s metabolic rate increases We are almost completely paralyzed during REM sleep: only the heart, diaphragm, eye muscles and smooth muscles (e.g. intestines) are free to move. The brain during REM sleep is largely shut off from sensory channels, and also there are no motor outputs. Nevertheless, it is still very active. When sleepers are awakened from REM sleep, they almost always report having a dream. This only happens 50% of the time when awakened from NREM sleep. REM sleep is associated with DREAMING .

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams SLEEP THEORY Edgar & Dement (1992) have proposed an opponent-process model of sleep and wakefulness. The brain possesses two opponent processes that govern the tendency to fall asleep or to be awake. These are the homeostatic sleep drive , and the clock-dependent alerting process . The homeostatic sleep drive strives to obtain the amount of sleep required for a stable level of daytime alertness. Throughout the day, the need to sleep builds up. The clock-dependent alerting process arouses us at a particular time each day. It is controlled by the biological clock, two tiny neural structures in the centre of the brain. Daylight signals the biological clock to stop secreting melatonin , a sleep-inducing hormone.

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams SLEEP DISORDERS 90% of adults sleep 6 to 9 hours per night Most people who only sleep 6-7 hours show signs of sleepiness throughout the day A sleep disorder exists when inability to sleep well produces impaired daytime functioning or excessive sleepiness .

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams SLEEP DISORDERS Common sleep disorders include: Sleep Deprivation : not getting enough sleep. 56% of adults report daytime drowsiness is a problem. 31% of all drivers have fallen asleep at the wheel at least once. Many sleep-deprived people carry years of accumulated “sleep debt” (Maas, 1998). Often sufferers experience a loss of energy in mid-afternoon. Even (a little) alcohol, a heavy meal or sitting in a warm room only reveal sleep debt: they do not “cause” sleepiness.

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams Common sleep disorders include: Insomnia : dissatisfaction with the amount or quality of one’s sleep. It is largely subjective, i.e. sometimes people complain of little or poor sleep, but are then found to sleep normally when investigated in a sleep laboratory. People often overestimate the amount of sleep they lose. Clarkson, Mitler & Dement (1974) found that only about half of the people who reported to be insomniacs actually lost more than 30 minutes per night. It may be that people don’t remember sleeping, therefore they think they stayed awake.

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams Common sleep disorders include: Narcolepsy : recurring, irreversible attacks of drowsiness bringing on sleep at any time. It can happen while writing a letter, driving a car, during a conversation Occurs several times a day, lasting from a few seconds to 30 minutes Narcolepsy is the intrusion of REM episodes into daylight hours. It runs in families, and is probably genetic (Hobson, 1988; Mignot, 1998)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams Common sleep disorders include: Apnea : the individual stops breathing while asleep. May be either (i) because the brain fails to send signal to breathe, or (ii) muscles at the top of the throat become too relaxed, allowing the windpipe to partially close. During an apnea episode, the oxygen level of the blood drops dramatically, which leads to emergency hormones being secreted. The sleeper thus wakens in order to start breathing again. Most people have a few apnea episodes each night; it is only a problem when it is happening several hundred times per night. Then people can spend 12 hours or more in bed, but still feel sleepy the next day. Sleep apnea is common among older men.

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams DREAMS Dreaming is an altered state of consciousness in which picture stories are constructed based on memories and current concerns, or on fantasies and images . It is not yet understood why people dream, nor are are the contents of their dreams understood. Most people do dream. Evidence from REM studies suggests people who say they don’t dream in fact are more likely to simply not recall their dreams. However, some evidence suggests preschool children do not dream, and elementary school children dream less than adults (Foulkes, 1999). Certain adults with brain damage also do not dream (Solms, 1997)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams Sometimes people are aware they are dreaming. Salamy (1970) trained people to press a switch when they noticed a dream beginning! Lucid dreams are those dreams in which events seem so normal that the dreamer feels he/she is conscious. “false awakening” may occur when the dreamer thinks he has woken up, but is in fact still dreaming Few people have such lucid dreams regularly (Squier & Domhoff, 1998) Most studies find little evidence that dream content can be controlled (Domhoff, 1985)

Sleep and Dreams:

Sleep and Dreams THEORIES OF DREAMING Freud (1900) wrote his book The Interpretation of Dreams He suggested dreams are a “royal road” to understanding the unconscious mind To him, dreams are disguised attempts to fulfill wishes (e.g. repressed wishes such as sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent) Freud distinguished between the MANIFEST CONTENT of a dream (what is recalled, the story of the dream with its characters and events), and the LATENT CONTENT (the disguised wish or impulse) Freud suggested the latent content is CENSORED by the mind of the dreamer, to avoid guilt or anxiety Fischer & Greenberg (1977, 1996) found NO support for manifest/latent dream content Other theories see dreaming as a cognitive process that reflects individual concerns, concepts and emotional preoccupations (Antrobus, 1991; Domhoff, 1996; Foulkes, 1985)

Meditation:

Meditation Meditation refers to achieving an altered state of consciousness by performing certain rituals and exercises . E.g. controlling breathing, restricting attention, eliminating external stimuli, forming mental images (of an event or a symbol) Meditation leads to a state of mental and physical relaxation

Meditation:

Meditation Traditional meditation practices are very ancient, and are found in most world religions Buddhism Hinduism Islam (Sufism) Judaism Christianity Meditation can reduce arousal and may alleviate anxiety and tension Teasdale et al. (2000) suggested the psychological benefits of meditation may be due to learning to put aside repetitive and troubling thoughts

Hypnosis:

Hypnosis In hypnosis, a willing and cooperative individual surrenders some control over their behaviour to the hypnotist, and accepts some distortion of reality Several methods can be used Person may be asked to concentrate on a small target while becoming gradually relaxed Reality distortion accepted: e.g. person talks to an empty chair, imagining someone is sitting there

Hypnosis:

Hypnosis Not all individuals are equally hypnotizable 5% to 10% of the population cannot be hypnotized even by a skilled hypnotist It is not possible to hypnotize a person who does not accept suggestions In the hypnotic state, the person experiences the following: Reduced planfulness (waits for hypnotists’ instructions) Increase in selective attention Enriched fantasy Acceptance of distortion Increased suggestibility Posthypnotic amnesia

Hypnosis:

Hypnosis Hypnotic Suggestions Control of movement : many hypnotised people respond to suggestions with involuntary movement A posthypnotic response occurs when people who have been roused from hypnosis respond with movement to a signal suggested during the hypnosis E.g. opening a window every time the hypnotist takes off her glasses Posthypnotic amnesia : when events which took place during the hypnotic state, cannot be recalled until the specific signal is given by the hypnotist Kihlstrom (1987) suggested hypnosis may temporarily interfere with the ability to retrieve an item from memory, but does not affect actual memory storage. Positive and negative hallucinations : these are rare. In positive hallucinations, a person sees or hears something that isn’t there; in negative hallucinations a person doesn’t see or hear something that is there. Negative hallucinations can be used to control pain; the pain reduction need not be complete.

Hypnosis:

Hypnosis Hidden Observer Hilgard (1986) observed that in many hypnotized individuals a part of the mind that is not within awareness seems to be watching the person’s experience E.g. a woman places her hand in a bucket of ice water during hypnosis; no pain is reported. When the hypnotist taps her shoulder according to a prearranged signal, the “hidden observer” reports pain. Spanos (1986) suggested the hidden observer effect may be due to implied demands for compliance Hypnosis as therapy Hypnosis can be used as a treatment for certain physical and psychological disorders e.g. reduction of anxiety for dental procedures, general pain management It is most controversial when used for emotional problems (false memory syndrome)

Psychoactive Drugs:

Psychoactive Drugs Drugs can be used to alter a person’s state of consciousness. The word drug refers to any substance (other than food) that chemically alters the functioning of an organism Psychoactive drugs are those that affect behaviour, consciousness, and / or mood E.g. illegal drugs, such as heroin, marijuana; also legal drugs like tranquilizers and stimulants The prevalence of illegal substance use has increased over the past four decades – people born in the 1960s and later are much more likely to have tried illegal substances than their parents or grandparents.

Psychoactive Drugs:

Psychoactive Drugs Drug dependence has 3 key characteristics: Tolerance – the individual has to take more and more of the drug to feel the same effects Withdrawal – if the individual stops using, unpleasant physical and psychological symptoms occur Compulsive use – more of the drug is taken than at first intended; there is a sense of having lost control, a failure to not use; a great deal of the person’s time is spent trying to obtain the drug. Note that a person who shows no signs of tolerance or withdrawal, as do some users of marijuana, is nevertheless still diagnosed as addicted if use is compulsive

Psychoactive Drugs:

Psychoactive Drugs Tolerance, withdrawal and compulsive use develop differently for different drugs E.g. tolerance builds fairly quickly for heroin, more slowly or not at all for marijuana A person who does not experience tolerance, withdrawal or compulsive use is NOT substance dependent (addicted), but may still be engaging in drug abuse . Drug abuse is continued use of a drug, despite serious consequences e.g. accidents, absence from work, marital and legal problems.

Psychoactive Drugs:

Psychoactive Drugs DEPRESSANTS These are drugs which depress the central nervous system E.g. sedation, anxiolysis, hypotension Includes tranquilizers (valium), barbiturates, alcohol, opiates

Alcohol:

Alcohol People in most societies around the world consume alcohol Alcohol is absorbed quickly into the body; its effects are felt most immediately in the brain At BAC (Blood Alcohol Concentrations) of .03% - .05% alcohol produces relaxation, sociability, self-confidence and decreased motor ability – hence it becomes dangerous to drive As BAC increases, aggression and motor impairment also increase, speech becomes slurred, loss of coordination At BAC=0.20%, the person is seriously incapacitated At BAC=0.40%, this may cause death The amount of alcohol required to become intoxicated (drunk) varies according to gender, body weight, and speed of consumption

Alcohol:

Alcohol ALCOHOL USAGE The most serious problem is accidents : these are the leading cause of death among 15-24 year-olds About 2/3 of Americans drink alcohol, and 10% have alcohol-related problems “ Binge drinking ” is a large problem in colleges Drinking while pregnant can cause FAS (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome): mental retardation and facial deformities for the infant

Alcohol:

Alcohol Cultural Differences in Alcohol Disorders There are low rates of alcohol-related problems in China and Taiwan 50% of Asians lack an enzyme which eliminates acetyldehyde, a breakdown product of alcohol; this makes drinking very unpleasant (flushed face and palpitations) There has been an increase in alcohol use among Asian businessmen Alcohol dependence and abuse are the most common disorders in the U.S.A.

Alcohol:

Alcohol Gender and Age Differences in Alcohol Disorders More men than women have alcohol dependence, though the size of the difference varies with culture e.g. in U.S. Hispanics and Asians show a greater gender gap in drinking than whites. Elderly people are less likely to abuse alcohol Older people metabolize alcohol more slowly, and therefore become intoxicated more quickly Those who do abuse alcohol die before they reach old age There is widespread abuse of alcohol in young adults, especially males 10% of males, 3% of females aged 14-24 are dependent – Nelson & Wittchen (1998)

Opiates:

Opiates Opiates are depressants which diminish physical sensation and capacity to respond to stimuli Opium is the air-dried juice of the opium poppy flower Opiates are used in a medical setting (e.g. morphine, codeine) to reduce pain Their mood-altering properties have led to widespread abuse When smoked or injected, they work very quickly, when snorted more slowly

Opiates:

Opiates HEROIN Heroin is an opiate which can be injected, smoked or inhaled At first (1-2 minutes after injection) it produces a sense of well-being (“rush”) Then a sense of gratification with no awareness of hunger, pain or sexual urges (“fix”) It is very addictive, tolerance builds up and more severe use ensues

Opioid receptors:

Opioid receptors Opiates act on specific opioid receptors in the brain that produce sensations of pleasure and reduce discomfort The molecular shape of opiates resembles that of the neurotransmitters called endorphins Repeated heroin use causes a drop in endorphin production; basically, heroin eventually replaces the body’s own natural opiates Agonists are drugs that bind to the opioid receptors to produce a feeling of pleasure which competes with that of heroin, thus reducing craving for heroin E.g. Methadone, buprenorphine Antagonists block the opioid receptors so that heroin cannot get to them E.g. Naltrexone

Stimulants:

Stimulants Stimulants are drugs which increase alertness and general arousal by increasing the amount of monoamine neurotransmitters (e.g. epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin) in the synapse Amphetamines Amphetamines are powerful stimulants which increase alertness and decrease fatigue and boredom; they also alter mood and self-confidence When the effects start to wear off, the person becomes irritable and depressed Tolerance to amphetamines develops quickly, so users quickly start to inject Long-term use leads to physical and mental deterioration, with “amphetamine psychosis” similar to schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia)

Cocaine:

Cocaine Cocaine is obtained from the dried leaves of the coca plant It increases energy and self-confidence It can be inhaled, injected or smoked It was studied by Freud, who also took it and found it is highly addictive Long-term use leads to symptoms similar to those of amphetamine use

Hallucinogens:

Hallucinogens Hallucinogens are drugs whose main effect is to alter perceptual experience Perceptions of both the internal and the external world are changed Usual events are experienced as novel, e.g. sounds and colours appear different Time distortion: minutes can seem like hours Auditory, visual and tactile hallucinations may occur Reduced ability to differentiate between self and environment

LSD:

LSD Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Also known as ‘acid’; first synthesized in 1938 by Albert Hoffman (1906-2008) A potent drug that can produce hallucinations at very low doses “Flashbacks” may occur long after drug use ceases The individual experiences similar hallucinations to hen they first took the drug, but weeks, months or years later There is a loss of reality orientation, leading to irrational and disoriented behaviour Occasionally also panic that thinking and action cannot be controlled

PCP:

PCP Phencyclidine A dissociative anaesthetic ( said to reduce or block signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain) which makes the user feel dissociated from the environment and may cause hallucinations Known as “angel dust” First synthesized in 1956 as a general anaesthetic Most often smoked or snorted, but available as liquid or pill also Produces insensitivity to pain and an experience similar to drunkenness

Cannabis:

Cannabis Cannabis is a psychoactive substance that creates a “high” feeling, cognitive and motor impairments, and sometimes hallucinations It is the most widely used illicit substance in the world

Cannabis:

Cannabis Marijuana is the form of cannabis (dried leaves and flowers) most used in the U.S.A. Hashish is commonly used in the Middle East Hashish is a dark brown paste-like resin It may be taken orally, but is usually smoked The active ingredient in cannabis is THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) THC is absorbed quickly into the blood supply of the lungs and sent to the brain and heart THC binds to cannabinoid receptors in the hippocampus, thus inhibiting the formation of memories It interferes with short-term memory and disrupts learning

Cannabis:

Cannabis Marijuana users report general euphoria, sense of well-being, some distortions of space and time, changes in social perception. 16% of regular users also report anxiety, fearfulness, and confusion About 1/3 report occasional acute panic, hallucinations and unpleasant distortions in body image Marijuana use also interferes with performance on complex tasks Low to moderate doses significantly impair motor coordination, making driving dangerous

PSI PHENOMENA:

PSI PHENOMENA CAN HUMANS: Acquire information in ways that do not involve stimulation of the senses? Influence physical events by purely mental means?

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena PSI refers to the Greek letter Ψ , which is the first letter in the word ψυχη , psyche. First used by psychologist Robert Thoules in 1942 to refer to extrasensory perception and psychokinesis Psi refers to anomalous processes of information and/or energy transfer that cannot be currently explained in terms of known biological or physical mechanisms

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena Among other phenomena, these include: Extrasensory perception (ESP): This is the general category of experiences which involve responding to external stimuli, but not through any known manner of sensory contact (such as sight, vision, touch etc.). Forms of ESP include: Telepathy – e.g. correctly identifying a playing card the other person has in mind. Transference of thought without sensory contact. Clairvoyance – e.g. identifying a hidden playing card in the drawer, which nobody knew was there. Perception of objects or events in the absence of any known stimulus. Precognition – e.g. predicting that the number ‘five’ will come up on the next throw of the dice. Perception of a future event which cannot be anticipated by guessing. Psychokinesis – e.g. willing the dice to turn up a certain number. Mental influence over physical events without the intervention of any known physical force.

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena Experimental evidence Many parapsychologists believe that recent experiments using experimental procedures, do provide evidence for psi The ganzfeld procedure Tests for telepathic communication between a participant who is the ‘receiver’ and another who acts as the ‘sender’ The ‘receiver’ is sequestered and placed in perpetual isolation, where they attempt to receive the message from the sender After the session, the participant is presented with stimuli and they rate how much they experienced each one.

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena The Debate Over the Evidence The replication problem This is the most serious criticism of parapsychology: the results cannot be reliably replicated The same investigator testing the same individuals over time may get statistically significant results on one occasion, but not on the next Only 43% of ganzfeld procedure studies yielded statistically significant results BUT – should statistical significance be the only measure of a study’s success? Meta-analysis combines the findings of many studies and finds positive results (Bem & Honorton, 1994)

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena The Debate Over the Evidence Inadequate Controls: A second criticism of these studies is that they lack adequate controls and safeguards Flawed procedures can lead to ‘sensory leakage’, by which a participant comes to know the information in a normal sensory way Inadequate procedures for randomizing stimuli are also a problem The File-Drawer Problem The database of studies which are known is biased towards the SUCCESSFUL studies which are published How many studies are left in the file drawers?

PSI Phenomena:

PSI Phenomena Anecdotal Evidence For the public, the evidence for psi consists of personal experiences and anecdotes Single experiences do NOT meet the criteria of scientific validity They are not repeatable, there are no controls, and there is a huge ‘file-drawer’ problem