Slide 1:Group 1: Tina Wall Vanessa Cabrera Carlos Tejero Joshua Nicolaas Raul Del Pozo Computer Science


Objectives :Objectives Explain what a computer is and its history. Discuss Data Representation and central processing unit. Hardware Describe Software Image Acquisition


History :History Computer: an electronic machine that stores instructions and information to perform rapid complex calculations or to store, manipulate, and retrieve information. The computer is capable of storing information (numbers, data, images, or text) following a set of instructions to make complex calculations and manipulate the information in some specific order.


History :History 1500 B.C The Chinese invented the abacus, a device with beads that could be moved to add, subtract, multiply, and divide. 1600’s Blaise Pascal and Baron von Leibniz had devised adding machine machines that through a series of gears and dials, performed lengthy calculations. 1804 Joseph Jacquard devised a technique for automating patterns to be woven into material. Jacquard’s loom used a series of rods that “read” the perforations in a series of cards that dictated the pattern to be woven.


History :History 1822-1834 Charles Babbage constructed a device he called the difference engine. This mechanical instrument used a complex grouping of gears, rods, and wheels to perform a series of calculations according to a predefined. 1889 Herman Hollerith invented a machine that could sort, collate, and count information on punched cards. The company that Hollerith founded later became International Business Machines (IBM). 1939 John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry devised a prototype computer that used a binary numbering system. They had recognized that electronics circuits were well suited to handle binary (1 or 0, on or off) representations of numbers.


History :History 1946 The first electron digital computer was operational, The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC); it was used to calculate artillery-aiming tables for the U.S Army and to solve problems for production of the hydrogen bomb. 1951 Remington-Rand became the world’s first large-scale manufacture of computers when it introduced the UNIVAC-I. 1960-1970 The first introduction of computers in nuclear medicine. Minicomputers were used to store the output from scintillation cameras and rectilinear scanners.


History :History 1965 Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the PDP-8, the first successful minicomputer. 1971 The first microprocessor, or computer on a single circuit board, was introduced. 1973 IBM introduced the first low-cost, high-speed magnetic storage device, the Winchester disk.


Slide 8:1975 The Motorola 6800 microprocessor was released, representing the first low-cost computer on a chip. 1977 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak started the foundation for the market of personal computers when they presented Apple Computer; that year the TRS-80 and Commodore personal computers also were released. 1977 The capability to perform multi grated cardiac studies had been defined, which brought a tremendous new application for nuclear medicine imaging computers and started the proliferation of computers into the community hospital. History


History :History 1981 IBM released its first personal computer 1980’s The commercial availability of SPECT cameras brought the first computationally intense applications to nuclear medicine in performing filtered back-projection reconstruction.


Data Representation :Data Representation Most essential building block of all computers is the transistor In fact the transistor was a switch used in the on and off position Information save by this switch is binary and is used to represent a 0 or 1 0 or 1 can also be called a binary digit or bit


Data Representation cont. :Data Representation cont. 1st position equals 2 to the zero power (any number to the zero power equals 1)2nd position equals 2 to the first power (2)3rd position equals 2 to the second power (2 x 2 = 4)4th position equals 2 to the third power (2 x 2 x 2 = 8)5th position equals 2 to the fourth power (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16)6th position equals 2 to the fifth power (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32)7th position equals 2 to the sixth power (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64)8th position equals 2 to the seventh power (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 128) Eight bits form a byte Maximum number that can be saved in a byte is 28 or 256 entries 0 to 255 can be saved in a single byte


Data representation (cont.) :Data representation (cont.) Group of bytes are called a block A disk sector can save a block of 256, 512, or 1024 bytes Numbers, text, information, and programs are called a file The size of the file is the number of bytes needed to save the information Memory is stored in kilobytes (thousands), megabytes (millions) and gigabytes (billions)


Central Processing Unit :Central Processing Unit Central Processing Unit is considered the nucleus of the computers The two primary components would be The control unit (CU) performs all operations The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logical operations


Memory :Memory CPU acts like a brain , by saving information in its memory Two basic types of memory are Read-only RAM random access memory ROM is permanent and stays in memory even when PC is turned off RAM can be changed since its read and write memory Saved when input enters computer Or saved when a program is open and run by a foreign device


Continuation :Continuation Operating systems referred to Windows, DOS, UNIX Faster RAMs are more expensive While slow memory take more clock cycles to send data to another source Cache is memory delivered from the RAM to the CPU Nuclear medicine computers are used for image acquisition The (DMA) direct memory access Uses both software and hardware in order to let data go through directly Does not require interruption from another program running


Input/ Output Devices :Input/ Output Devices Bus – communication of the CPU with the outside world Display terminals – keyboard and monitor


Input/ Output Devices (cont’) :Input/ Output Devices (cont’) Mouse – pointing device Printers – used for presenting text information Modem – produces a continuous frequency, or carrier wave to transmit information


Data Storage :Data Storage Disks – storage device Floppy disks- convenient medium to save and transfer data


Data Storage (cont’) :Data Storage (cont’) Optical disks – mass storage device to save data Camera Interface – convert electrical pulses to numbers


Care & Quality Assurance :Care & Quality Assurance To ensure the best quality performance from an imaging computer, certain environmental criteria that have to be met: Temperature Humidity Electromagnetic fields Power Cleanliness


Temperature :Temperature Imaging computer like general computers generate a significant amount of heat. To prevent the computers from overheating Air conditioning should be installed to help maintain the rooms temperature to about 70° F. Humidity If the humidity in the room where the computers are is not capped at a moderate level of usually 50%, than the flow of the humidity rising and falling can affect the operation of the computer and its peripheral components.


Electromagnetic Fields :Electromagnetic Fields Computers and magnetic storage media should not be stored or put next to an electromagnetic field as disk maybe erased unintentionally. Power Voltage spikes that can occur on an alternation current line can affect the voltage applied to circuit boards and components on the board as the voltage supplied is very small. To prevent any mishaps computers should be on their own circuit. This will also prevent any current fluctuations or electrical noise. A power conditioner may have to be added in order to prevent brief interruptions in the power source if there are voltage spikes or brownouts occurring. Computers and their internal circuit boards are sensitive to static electricity. An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) system can be prevent brownouts or blackouts and voltage spikes from doing damage to a computer and provides power for a short period of time to allow the computer to continue its operations and the being able to be shut down properly to protect the hardware and files.


Cleanliness :Cleanliness Cleanliness is very important. Problems with power supplies, circuit boards and disk drives can be created from dust and dirt. Some imaging computers sit below cooling fans with air filters, in which those air filters should be changed monthly. Quality assurance testing like a test image, flood, or resolution done daily to evaluate image size, linearity, and uniformity should be done to guarantee the up most performance. When doing a test image the size and shape of the image is tweaked causing distortion. Images from a high resolution phantom can also help identify proper image acquisition. ECG (electrocardiogram) input is used to identify the patients cardiac cycle from the QRS complex (the principle deflection in the electrocardiogram representing ventricular depolarization). For proper gated cardiac studies the input of a physiological signal from an (ECG) has to be correct triggering. To check the ECG input nuclear cardiology phantoms and other testing equipment can used or the biomedical engineering department can assist. They have ECG simulators that connect to the ECG input of a nuclear medicine computer and evaluate proper gating. While performing a test gated acquisition. The use to a radioactive source to flood the cameras detector is a common technique used to validate the cameras performance.


Slide 24:Serves personal should evaluate the computers on a regular by cleaning the inside of the computer, run diagnostic test to evaluate internal performance and check the input and output to secondarydevices. Therefore, the computers quality control and care procedures should be done on a regular bases and daily acquisition should be done and recorded. The computer area should be neat and tidy and the air filters should be changes occasionally. Maintaining proper function of the computer is just one of many jobs done beyond the training of a nuclear medicine technologist.


Software :Software Software is the instructions or programs that provide control over calculations and subsystems. Software was the name given as the instructions and calculation had no physical hardware. Software is the backbone to enable the computer to perform different calculations, word processing, game playing, and image processing. Software is the interface between human users and hardware to do a task on the computer. The three types of software are; systems software, programming software, and user programs. Systems software consist of the programs and files necessary for internal operation of the computer and utility programs required to manipulate files. Programming software contains an editor, support libraries, and compiler to translate user written programs into a form which can be understood by the computer. User programs are the instructions needed to execute the applications needed by he user, such as word processing, accounting, image acquisition, and image processing.


Operating Systems :Operating Systems *Programs used to control, assist, and run other programs on the computer system are operating systems. *The operating system is responsible for controlling the internal functions of the computer by running programs. *Operating systems are large programs and are stored on disk. Programs in the operating system allows users to create, copy, delete files, modify and store data, and to run the editor to write programs. *The operating system also contains subprograms that interact with disk, the graphic display, the modem, and allows the user to list programs and files on a disk as well as loading and executing programs. *Operating systems have a multitasking environment, meaning several tasks are allowed a portion of memory for the program and to store data required for that programs operation. However, if the number of tasks and the size of the tasks increase the slower the response of the computer. * The most common operating systems is Windows developed by Microsoft, and the Macintosh operating systems developed by Apple.


Program Languages :Program Languages Binary Code- A language understood by the computer represented in a series of ones and zero’s 0010110001010110101001010110010101 This is incomprehensable to humans, and are extremely basic to computers to perform the most rudimentary task.


High-Level Programming Language :High-Level Programming Language A different language for programming in which resembles a more English like language. This is better for programmers; more comprehensible, and they don’t have to waste time trying to translate into binary code.


Editor :Editor An editor is a program that allows keyboard entry for written material in which you can create, modify, and save a written file. An editor is very similar to a word processor


Interpreted and Executed :Interpreted and Executed An interpreted program is not represented in zero’s and ones, but simply in a setting containing one simple command to do another. One program is interpreted into machine language, then executed by the CPU in small simple steps.


BASIC :BASIC Beginners All-purpose Symbolic instruction Code


Image Acquisitions :Image Acquisitions Conversion between Analog to Digital Resolution and matrices, appear in the following formats: 64x64, 128x128, 256x256, or 512x512


Magnification :Magnification Magnification can be used to zoom in on organs and bones. It can also be used to zoom into digital formats.


Summary… :Summary… Now you should have a better understanding of…… A computer and its origins Data representation Hardware/Software Image acquisition


References: :References: Waterstram-Rich, K.M. & Christian, P.E. (2007). Nuclear Medicine and PECT/CT Technology and Techniques. Missouri. Mosby, Elsevier Inc. Ostergaard, E. (1997). Binary Number System Retrieved September 12, 2008, website http://www.erikoeut.dk/binary.htm


questions :questions What year did the Chinese invent the abacus? What year did the first apple computer get released ? 3. Name two environmental criteria need a computer best quality performance. Which of the three software contains an editor, support libraries, and compiler to convert the instruction file into an executable program? Name two types of display terminals. Name two types of storage device’s. What is the most useful building block of all computers? What is the nucleus of the computer? What is the purpose of an editor program? Can you magnify a digital image? (True or False)