Thyroid :Thyroid


Thyroid :Thyroid Largest Endocrine organ in the body Involved in production, storage, and release of thyroid hormone Function influenced by Central axis (TRH) Pituitary function (TSH) Comorbid diseases (Cirrhosis, Graves, etc.) Environmental factors (iodine intake)


Thyroid (cont) :Thyroid (cont) Regulates basal metabolic rate Improves cardiac contractility Increases the gain of catecholamines Increases bowel motility Increases speed of muscle contraction Decreases cholesterol (LDL) Required for proper fetal neural growth


Thyroid Physiology :Thyroid Physiology Uptake of Iodine by thyroid Coupling of Iodine to Thyroglobulin Storage of MIT / DIT in follicular space Re-absorption of MIT / DIT Formation of T3, T4 from MIT / DIT Release of T3, T4 into serum Breakdown of T3, T4 with release of Iodine


Iodine uptake :Iodine uptake Na+/I- symport protein controls serum I- uptake Based on Na+/K+ antiport potential Stimulated by TSH Inhibited by Perchlorate


MIT / DIT formation :MIT / DIT formation Thyroid Peroxidase (TPO) Apical membrane protein Catalyzes Iodine organification to Tyrosine residues of Thyroglobulin Antagonized by methimazole Iodine coupled to Thyroglobulin Monoiodotyrosine (Tg + one I-) Diiodotyrosine (Tg + two I-) Pre-hormones secreted into follicular space


Secretion of Thyroid Hormone :Secretion of Thyroid Hormone Stimulated by TSH Endocytosis of colloid on apical membrane Coupling of MIT & DIT residues Catalyzed by TPO MIT + DIT = T3 DIT + DIT = T4 Hydrolysis of Thyroglobulin Release of T3, T4 Release inhibited by Lithium


Thyroid Hormones :Thyroid Hormones


Thyroid Hormone :Thyroid Hormone Majority of circulating hormone is T4 98.5% T4 1.5% T3 Total Hormone load is influenced by serum binding proteins (TBP, Albumin, ??) Thyroid Binding Globulin 70% Albumin 15% Transthyretin 10% Regulation is based on the free component of thyroid hormone


Hormone Binding Factors :Hormone Binding Factors Increased TBG High estrogen states (pregnancy, OCP, HRT, Tamoxifen) Liver disease (early) Decreased TBG Androgens or anabolic steroids Liver disease (late) Binding Site Competition NSAID’s Furosemide IV Anticonvulsants (Phenytoin, Carbamazepine)


Hormone Degredation :Hormone Degredation T4 is converted to T3 (active) by 5’ deiodinase T4 can be converted to rT3 (inactive) by 5 deiodinase T3 is converted to rT2 (inactive)by 5 deiodinase rT3 is inactive but measured by serum tests


Thyroid Hormone Control :Thyroid Hormone Control


TRH :TRH Produced by Hypothalamus Release is pulsatile, circadian Downregulated by T4, T3 Travels through portal venous system to adenohypophysis Stimulates TSH formation


TSH :TSH Produced by Adenohypophysis Thyrotrophs Upregulated by TRH Downregulated by T4, T3 Travels through portal venous system to cavernous sinus, body. Stimulates several processes Iodine uptake Colloid endocytosis Growth of thyroid gland


TSH Response :TSH Response


Thyroid Lab Evaluation :Thyroid Lab Evaluation TRH TSH TT3, TT4 FT3, FT4 RAIU Thyroglobulin, Thyroglobulin Ab Perchlorate Test Stimulation Tests


RAIU :RAIU Scintillation counter measures radioactivity 6 & 24 hours after I123 administration. Uptake varies greatly by iodine status Indigenous diet (normal uptake 10% vs. 90%) Amiodarone, Contrast study, Topical betadine Symptomatic elevated RAIU Graves’ Toxic goiter Symptomatic low RAIU Thyroiditis (Subacute, Active Hashimoto’s) Hormone ingestion (Thyrotoxicosis factitia, Hamburger Thyrotoxicosis) Excess I- intake in Graves’ (Jod-Basedow effect) Ectopic thyroid carcinoma (Struma ovarii)


Iodine states :Iodine states Normal Thyroid Inactive Thyroid Hyperactive Thyroid


Wolff-Chaikoff :Wolff-Chaikoff Increasing doses of I- increase hormone synthesis initially Higher doses cause cessation of hormone formation. This effect is countered by the Iodide leak from normal thyroid tissue. Patients with autoimmune thyroiditis may fail to adapt and become hypothyroid.


Jod-Basedow :Jod-Basedow Aberration of the Wolff-Chaikoff effect Excessive iodine loads induce hyperthyroidism Observed in several disease processes Graves’ disease Multinodular goiter


Perchlorate :Perchlorate ClO4- ion inhibits the Na+ / I- transport protein. Normal individuals show no leak of I123 after ClO4- due to organification of I- to MIT / DIT Patients with organification defects show loss of RAIU. Used in diagnosis of Pendred syndrome


Hypothyroid :Hypothyroid Symptoms – fatigability, coldness, weight gain, constipation, low voice Signs – Cool skin, dry skin, swelling of face/hands/legs, slow reflexes, myxedema Newborn – Retardation, short stature, swelling of face/hands, possible deafness Types of Hypothyroidism Primary – Thyroid gland failure Secondary – Pituitary failure Tertiary – Hypothalamic failure Peripheral resistance


Hypothyroid :Hypothyroid Cause is determined by geography Diagnosis Low FT4, High TSH (Primary, check for antibodies) Low FT4, Low TSH (Secondary or Tertiary, TRH stimulation test, MRI) Treatment Levothyroxine (T4) due to longer half life Treatment prevents bone loss, cardiomyopathy, myxedema


Hashimoto’s(Chronic, Lymphocytic) :Hashimoto’s(Chronic, Lymphocytic) Most common cause of hypothyroidism Result of antibodies to TPO, TBG Commonly presents in females 30-50 yrs. Usually non-tender and asymptomatic Lab values High TSH Low T4 Anti-TPO Ab Anti-TBG Ab Treat with Levothyroxine


Goiter :Goiter Endemic goiter Caused by dietary deficiency of Iodide Increased TSH stimulates gland growth Also results in cretinism Goiter in developed countries Hashimoto’s thryoiditis Subacute thyroiditis Other causes Excess Iodide (Amiodarone, Kelp, Lithium) Adenoma, Malignancy Genetic / Familial hormone synthesis defects


Hyperthyroid :Hyperthyroid Symptoms – Palpitations, nervousness, fatigue, diarrhea, sweating, heat intolerance Signs – Thyroid enlargement (?), tremor Lab workup TSH FT4 RAIU Other Labs Anti-TSH-R Ab, Anti-TPO Ab, Anti-TBG Ab FT3 FNA MRI, US


Hyperthyroid :Hyperthyroid Common Causes *Graves Adenoma Multinodular Goiter *Subacute Thyroiditis *Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis Rare Causes Thyrotoxicosis factitia, struma ovarii, thyroid metastasis, TSH-secreting tumor, hamburger


Graves :Graves Most common cause of hyperthyroidism Result of anti-TSH receptor antibodies Diagnosis Symptoms of hyperthyroidism Clinical exopthalmos and goiter Low TSH, normal/high FT4, anti-TSH Ab (Optional) If no clinical findings I123 may demonstrate increased uptake. Treatments Medical – Propothyouracil, Methimazole, Propranolol Surgical – Subtotal Thyroidectomy Radiation – RAI ablation [I131(Ci/g) x weight / %RAIU]


Subacute Thyroiditis(DeQuervain’s, Granulomatous) :Subacute Thyroiditis(DeQuervain’s, Granulomatous) Acute viral infection of thyroid gland Presents with viral prodrome, thyroid tenderness, and hyperthyroid symptoms Lab values Variable TSH, T4 High ESR No antibodies Treatment APAP, NSAID Prednisone (?) Levothyroxine (?)


Subacute Thyroiditis(DeQuervain’s, Granulomatous) :Subacute Thyroiditis(DeQuervain’s, Granulomatous)


Euthyroid Sick :Euthyroid Sick Results from inactivation of 5’-Deiodinase, resulting in conversion of FT4 to rT3. Generally occurs in critically ill patients, but may occur with DM, malnutrition, iodine loads, or medications (Amiodarone, PTU, glucocorticoids) Treatment Avoid above medications Treat primary illness T3, T4 not helpful


Thyroid Storm :Thyroid Storm Causes Surgery Radioactive Iodine Therapy Severe Illness Diagnosis Clinical – tachycardia, hyperpyrexia, thyrotoxicosis symptoms Labs (Low TSH, High T4, FT4) Treatment Propranolol IV vs. Verapamil IV Propylthiouracil, Methimazole Sodium Iodide Acetamenophen, cooling blankets Plasmapheresis (rare) Surgical (rare)


Calcium Regulation :Calcium Regulation Parathyroid


Calcium :Calcium Required for muscle contraction, intracellular messenger systems, cardiac repolarization. Exists in free and bound states Albumin (40% total calcium) Phosphate and Citrate (10% total calcium) Concentration of iCa++ mediated by Parathyroid gland Parafollicular C cells Kidney Bone


Parathyroid Hormone :Parathyroid Hormone Produced by Parathyroid Chief cells Secreted in response to low iCa++ Stimulates renal conversion of 25-(OH)D3 to 1,25-(OH)2D which increases intestinal Ca++ absorption Directly stimulates renal Ca++ absorption and PO43- excretion Stimulates osteoclastic resorption of bone


Calcitonin :Calcitonin Produced by Parafollicular C cells of Thyroid in response to increased iCa++ Actions Inhibit osteoclastic resorption of bone Increase renal Ca++ and PO43- excretion Non-essential hormone. Patients with total thyroidectomy maintain normal Ca++ concentrations Useful in monitoring treatment of Medullary Thyroid cancer Used in treatment of Pagets’, Osteoporosis


Vitamin D :Vitamin D Sources Food – Vitamin D2 UV light mediated cholesterol metabolism – D3 Metabolism D2 and D3 are converted to 25(OH)-D by the liver 25(OH)-D is converted to 1,25(OH)2-D by the Kidney Function Stimulation of Osteoblasts Increases GI absorption of dietary Ca++


Hypocalcemia :Hypocalcemia Decreased PTH Surgery Hypomagnesemia Idiopathic Resistance to PTH Genetic disorders Bisphosphonates Vitamin D abnormalities Vitamin D deficiency Rickets (VDR or Renal hyroxylase abnormalities) Binding of Calcium Hyperphosphate states (Crush injury, Tumor lysis, etc.) Blood Transfusion (Citrate)


Hypercalcemia :Hypercalcemia Hyperparathyroidism Primary, Secondary, Tertiary MEN Syndromes Malignancy Humoral Hypercalcemia PTHrP (Lung Cancer) Osteoclastic activity (Myeloma, Lymphoma) Granulomatous Diseases Overproduction of 1,25 (OH)2D Drug-Induced Thiazides Lithium Milk-Alkali Vitamin A, D Renal failure


Hypercalcemia :Hypercalcemia Signs & Symptoms Bones (Osteitis fibrosa cystica, osteoporosis, rickets) Stones (Renal stones) Groans (Constipation, peptic ulcer) Moans (Lethargy, depression, confusion) Medical Treatment SERM’s (Evista) Bisphosphonates (Pamidronate) Calcitonin (for severe cases) Saline diuresis Glucocorticoids (for malignant/granulomatous diseases) Avoid thiazide diuretics Surgical Treatment Single vs. Double adenoma – simple excision Multiple Gland hyperplasia – total parathyroid with autotransplant vs. 3½ gland excision


Primary Hyperparathyroidism :Primary Hyperparathyroidism Diagnosis Signs & Symptoms Elevated serum calcium Elevated PTH Etiology Solitary Adenoma (80-85%) Double Adenomas (2-4%) Muliple Gland Hyperplasia (10-30%) Parathyroid Carcinoma (0.5%) MEN syndromes (10% of MGH have MEN 1)


Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia :Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia MEN 1 Pituitary adenoma Pancreatic endocrine tumor Parathyroid neoplasia (90%) MEN 2a Medullary thyroid cancer (100%) Pheochromocytoma (50%) Parathyroid neoplasia (10-40%) MEN 2b Medullary thyroid cancer (100%) Pheochromocytoma (50%) Neuromas (100%)


Parathyroidectomy :Parathyroidectomy 1990 NIH Guidelines Serum Ca++ > 12 mg/dl Hypercalciuria > 400 mg/day Classic symptoms Nephrolithiasis Osteitis fibrosa cystica Neuromuscular disease Cortical bone loss with DEXA Z score < -2 Reduced creatinine clearance Age < 50 Other considerations Vertebral osteopenia Vitamin D deficency Perimenopause


Preoperative Localization :Preoperative Localization Thallium / Pertechnetate Based on subtraction of Tc 99 which concentrates only in thyroid from background Thallium which is absorbed by thyroid and parathyroid Moderate sensitivity and specificity Thyroid pathology reduces effectiveness Technetium 99m Sestamibi Absorbed by thyroid and abnormal parathyroid Early washout from thyroid leaves residual parathyroid signals in later images Higher sensitivity and specificity Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography Creates a three dimensional representation to allow for ectopic localization Not commonly used


Intraoperative Hormone Assays :Intraoperative Hormone Assays Garner, S., Leight, G. Surgery 1999; 126: 1132-8. Intraoperative PTH assays found highly sensitive for remaining disease (98.4%) All cases of false positives were in multiple gland disease The incidence of MGH was low in this study Weber, C., Ritchie, J. Surgery 1999; 126: 1139-44. Intraoperative PTH assays work well in solitary adenomas Multiple gland disease often gives false results due to “adenoma effect” of the dominant gland Recomends bilateral exploration with any evidence of multiple gland disease


Bibliography :Bibliography Bailey, Byron J. Head and Neck Surgery – Otolaryngology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Baltimore, MD. 2001. Greenspan, Francis S.; Strewler, Gordon J. Basic & Clinical Endocrinology. Appleton & Lange. Stamford, Connecticut. 1997. Koos, W.T.; Spetzler, R.F. Color Atlas of Microneurosurgery. Thieme. New York, New York. 2000. Netter, Frank H. The CIBA Collection of Medical Illustrations – Volume 4, Endocrine System and Selected Metabolic Diseases. Ciba Pharmaceutical Company. New York, New York. 1970. Randolph, Gregory W. Surgery of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands. Saunders. Philadelphia, PA. 2003.


Bibliography :Bibliography Goretzki, P. E. et. al. “Management of Primary Hyperparathyroidism Caused by Multiple Gland Disease”. World Journal of Surgery. 1991; 15: 693-7. Pattou, Francois. et. al. “Correlation of parathyroid scanning and anatomy in 261 unselected patients with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism”. Surgery 1999; 126: 1123-31. Jones, J. Mark. et. al. “Pre-operative Sestamibi-Technetium Subtraction Scintigraphy in Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Experience with 156 Consecutive Patients”. Clinical Radiology. 2001; 56: 556-9. Berger, A. et. al. “Heterogeneous Gland Size in Sporadic Multiple Gland Parathyroid Hyperplasia.” Journal of the American College of Surgery. 1999; 188: 382-9.


Bibliography :Bibliography Garner, Sanford; Leight, George. “Initial experience with intraoperative PTH determinations in the surgical management of 130 consecutive cases of primary hyperparathyroidism”. Surgery 1999;126:1132-8. Weber, Collin; Ritchie, James. “Retrospective analysis of sequential changes in serum intact parathyroid hormone levels during conventional parathyroid exploration”. Surgery 1999; 126: 1139-44. Libutti, Steven. et. al. “Kinetic analysis of the rapid intraoperative parathyroid hormone assay in patients during operation for hyperparathyroidism.” Surgery 1999; 126: 1145-51.