rm

Chapters 1 and 2 – Research Methods : 

1 Research Methods 1 1 Research Methods 1 Chapters 1 and 2 – Research Methods Topic 1: Research methods and technique Topic 2: Investigation design Topic 3: Data analysis and presentation

Topic 1: Research methods and Techniques : 

1 Research Methods 2 Topic 1: Research methods and Techniques Experimental method Studies using correlational analysis Observational techniques Self-report techniques Case studies

Experimental Method in Psychology : 

1 Research Methods 3 1 Research Methods 3 Experimental Method in Psychology A true experiment has three key features: The researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) in order to investigate whether there is a change in a second variable, known as the dependent variable (DV) All other variables, which might influence the results, are either controlled, held constant or eliminated. Unwanted variables are called confounding variables Participants (Ps) are allocated to the experimental conditions randomly A quasi-experiment is one where the investigator lacks complete control over the IV and the allocation of Ps to conditions

Linking the independent and dependant variable : 

Linking the independent and dependant variable 1 Research Methods 4 Manipulation of the IV (teaching method) Any observed changes in the DV (reading ability) Is responsible for (causal link)

Experimental Method in Psychology (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 5 Experimental Method in Psychology (cont.) Advantages of the experimental method Disadvantages of the experimental method Laboratory experiments Field experiments Natural experiments 1 Research Methods 5

Advantages of the Experimental Method : 

1 Research Methods 6 Advantages of the Experimental Method May be able to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and the DV • Allows researchers to force the pace of the research because they do not have to wait for natural events to reproduce the appropriate scenario • An experiment generates quantitative data (numerical measures of the DV) which can be analysed to allow the researcher to state how likely the results are to have occurred by chance • It is possible to generalise the findings to the rest of the population from which the sample of participants has been draw, provided that a representative sample of participants was selected for the original experiment 1 Research Methods 6

Disadvantages of the Experimental Method : 

1 Research Methods 7 Disadvantages of the Experimental Method Participants in many experimental investigations reflect an over-representation of males and of specific cultures, and are often student volunteers Participants usually know that they are taking part in a psychological experiment and may therefore react either positively or negatively to this knowledge. This can affect the results of the study It is not always possible to carry out an experiment because it would either be inappropriate or unethical to do so 1 Research Methods 7

IV and DV : 

IV and DV IV – the acoustic similarity of the words DV – serial memory recall scores IV – level of difficulty of the anagrams DV – memory retention IV - location of the memory test/instructions to imagine a particular environment DV – the number of words correctly recalled 1 Research Methods 8

Laboratory Experiments : 

1 Research Methods 9 Laboratory Experiments Provide the highest level of control over variables and are widely used in psychology The psychology laboratory may be the only place where some sophisticated technical equipment can be used and accurate measurements made Just because a study has been carried out in a laboratory does not mean that it is necessarily an experiment. Observation studies may also take place in laboratories 1 Research Methods 9

Stroop : 

Stroop http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html 1 Research Methods 10

The Stroop Effect : 

The Stroop Effect The IV is whether the stimulus sheets consisted of coloured words or colourd ink blocks The DV is the time taken to name the ink colours There were two conditions: experimental and control The data were quantitative The findings suggest that when colour names are written in a conflicting ink colour it takes longer to name the ink colour than when the ink colour is presented as a block. 1 Research Methods 11

The Laboratory Experiment (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 12 The Laboratory Experiment (cont.) Advantages Replicability of procedures Sophisticated measuring and recording equipment Control over variables Weaknesses Loss of validity Demand characteristics Ethical issues Consent Deception Use of animals 1 Research Methods 12

Field Experiments : 

1 Research Methods 13 Field Experiments Field experiments are experimental investigations carried out in the natural environment of those being studied The field experiment is used in situations where it is considered particularly important for research to take account of the natural environment 1 Research Methods 13

Field Experiments (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 14 Field Experiments (cont.) Advantages Improved ecological validity Reduction of demand characteristics Weaknesses Establishing controls Generalising to other situations Cost Use of technical equipment Ethical Issues Consent Confidentiality Use of animals 1 Research Methods 14

Natural Experiments : 

1 Research Methods 15 Natural Experiments In a natural experiment, the researcher makes use of naturally occurring differences in the independent variable (IV) The researcher does not directly control the IV The approach is therefore best described as a quasi-experiment although some purists might even regard it as non-experimental study 1 Research Methods 15

Natural Experiments (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 16 Natural Experiments (cont.) Advantages Reduction of demand characteristics Lack of direct intervention Disadvantages Loss of control Likelihood of the desired behaviour being displayed Ethical issues Consent Protection of participants Confidentiality 1 Research Methods 16

Example of a Natural Experiment:Violence levels before and after the Kennedy assassination in 1963 : 

1 Research Methods 17 Example of a Natural Experiment:Violence levels before and after the Kennedy assassination in 1963

Non-experimental Research Methods : 

1 Research Methods 18 Non-experimental Research Methods Studies using correlational analysis Observational techniques Self-report techniques: questionnaires Self-report techniques: interviews Case studies 1 Research Methods 18

Studies using Correlational Analysis : 

1 Research Methods 19 Studies using Correlational Analysis The term ‘correlation’ refers to a statistical technique that measures the relationship between two variables A positive correlation: high values on one variable are associated with high values on another variable A negative correlation: high values on one variable are associated with low values on another variable A correlation coefficient indicates the strength and direction of the association between two variables: The strength is indicated by the number (between 0 and 1) and the direction by the sign in front of the number +1 is a perfect positive correlation -1 is a perfect negative correlation

Studies using Correlational Analysis (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 20 Studies using Correlational Analysis (cont.) Advantages Measuring the strength of relationships Value to exploratory research Weaknesses The issue of causality Measurement of non-linear relationships Ethical issues Consent Use of findings 1 Research Methods 20

Observational Techniques : 

1 Research Methods 21 Observational Techniques In observation research, behaviour is observed and recorded and there is usually no deliberate manipulation of variables Observational research can differ in several important ways, depending on: the setting of the study, e.g. naturalistic or laboratory-based the role of the researcher, e.g. participant or non-participant the amount of structure imposed, e.g. use of a coding system to record instances of a behaviour 1 Research Methods 21

Observational Techniques (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 22 Observational Techniques (cont.) Advantages Value as a preliminary research tool Validity Weaknesses Control Replication Observer effects Ecological validly and realism Costs Coding systems Generalisability of the findings Ethical issues Privacy Confidentially and consent Use of the findings 1 Research Methods 22

Self-report Techniques: Questionnaires : 

1 Research Methods 23 Self-report Techniques: Questionnaires Self-report techniques enable participants to provide information knowingly about specific things relating to themselves The questionnaire is one type of self-report technique A survey – the systematic gathering of data from large numbers of people – usually uses questionnaires Types of question Closed questions Open ended questions Good practice: Keep questions to minimum necessary Use short, clearly phrased, questions Avoid emotionally charged questions 1 Research Methods 23

Self-report Techniques: Questionnaires (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 24 Self-report Techniques: Questionnaires (cont.) Advantages Simplicity Speed and cost Less influence of interpersonal variables Weaknesses Problem with question wording, e.g. leading questions Poorly designed questionnaires Response rates Researches effects and biases Ethical issues Privacy Consent Risk of harm Debriefing and support 1 Research Methods 24

Self-report Techniques: Interviews : 

1 Research Methods 25 Self-report Techniques: Interviews A face-to-face encounter where one person asks another person a series of questions. The interview may be: Structured Unstructured Semi-structured Structured interviews: predetermined questions and usually produce quantitative data Unstructured interviews: less rigid with only one or two opening questions decided in advance Semi-structured interviews: use a mix of prepared questions with additional questions as needed 1 Research Methods 25

Self-report Techniques: Interviews (cont.) : 

1 Research Methods 26 Self-report Techniques: Interviews (cont.) Advantages Flexibility Tackling sensitive topics Different types of interview Weaknesses Interpreting data Time and effort involved Limitations of interviewees’ responses Effects of interpersonal variables Demand characteristics Need for training Cost Ethical issues Similar to those associated with the use of questionnaires (privacy, consent, confidentiality, protection from harm and debriefing) 1 Research Methods 26

Case Studies : 

1 Research Methods 27 Case Studies Advantages Rich and interesting data Challenging existing theory Weaknesses Low reliability of much case study research Findings may be subjective Selecting from large amounts of data Distortions Ethical issues Similar to those involved in interviews and observation research Level of intrusion 1 Research Methods 27 Case study research typically involves the in-depth study over time of a ‘case’ which can be single individual, small group, event or discrete process.

Research Methods and Techniques : 

1 Research Methods 28 1 Research Methods 28 What are quantitative data? What are qualitative data? List the three key features of a true experiment. Give two advantages and two weaknesses of laboratory experiments. What is a field experiment? Give two advantages and two weaknesses of field experiments. What is a natural experiment? Give two advantages and two weaknesses of natural experiments. Define what is meant by an independent variable. Define what is meant by a dependent variable. What is correlational analysis and when is it used in psychology? Give two advantages and two weaknesses of studies using correlational analysis. What is naturalistic observation and when is it used in psychology? What is meant by the term ‘participant observation’? Check Your Understanding Research Methods and Techniques

Research Methods and Techniques : 

1 Research Methods 29 1 Research Methods 29 Research Methods and Techniques Give two advantages and two weaknesses of using observational techniques to collect research data in psychology. What is meant by the term ‘self-report techniques’? What is a questionnaire and when are questionnaires used in psychological research? What is an ‘open-ended’ and a ‘closed’ question in a questionnaire or interview? Give two advantages and two weaknesses of using questionnaires as a method of collecting research data. Define what is meant by an interview and describe when it is used in psychological research? What are the key differences between structured, unstructured and semi-structured interviews? Give two advantages and two weaknesses of using interviews as a method of collecting research data in psychology. When do psychologists use case study research? Give two advantages and two disadvantages of case study research. Check Your Understanding