GISAT 160 Critical Thinking Lectures from Browne and Keeley

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GISAT 160 Critical Thinking:

GISAT 160 Critical Thinking Notes from Browne and Keeley Compiled and modified by Paul Henriksen

The Jewels and the Garbage:

The Jewels and the Garbage Critical thinking helps us separate the two. Awareness of interrelated critical questions Ability to ask and answer critical questions Desire to actively use the critical questions. These questions can be asked of a person or of the author of a letter or article. However the author cannot answer back.

Critical Questions:

Critical Questions Critical questions help us React critically to essays, textbooks, websites or periodicals Judge the quality of a lecture or speech Form an argument Write an essay based on a reading assign. Participate in class

Sponging vs Panning for Gold:

Sponging vs Panning for Gold Sponges absorb everything around them and consume it all. There is nothing wrong with starting as a sponge. What is the drawback to this approach? People who Pan for Gold try to separate the important points from the meaningless or the misleading.

Panning for Gold Check:

Panning for Gold Check Did I ask “why” someone wants me to believe something? Did I take notes as I thought about potential problems with what was being said? Did I evaluate what was being said? Did I form my own conclusion about the topic?

:

In the following passage try to decide if the argument is convincing. Ask yourself, “What questions would I like to ask to get clarification and understand what the author is trying to say.”

Handgun control:

Handgun control Arguments for banning guns are mostly myths, and what we need now is not more laws, but more law enforcement. One myth is that most murderers are ordinary, law-abiding citizens who kill a relative or acquaintance in a moment of anger only because a gun is available. In fact, every study of homicide shows the overwhelming majority of murderers are career criminals, people with lifelong histories of violence. The typical murderer has a prior criminal history averaging at least six years, with four major felony arrests. Another myth is that gun owners are ignorant rednecks given to senseless violence. However, studies consistently show that on the average, gun owners are better educated and have more prestigious jobs than non-owners. To judge by their applications for permits to carry guns at all times, the following are (or were) gun owners: Eleanor Roosevelt, Joan Rivers, Donald Trump, and David Rockefeller. A further myth is that guns are not useful for self-defense. On the contrary! Every study has shown that handguns are used more often in repelling crimes than in committing them. While handguns are used in about 581,000 crimes yearly, they are used to repel about 645,000 crimes. Even if gun laws do potentially reduce gun-related crime, the present laws are all that are needed if they are enforced. What good would stronger laws do when the courts have demonstrated that they will not enforce them?

Possible Questions:

Possible Questions What does the author mean by “overwhelming majority” or by “typical murderer”? Is the minority still a substantial number of murderers who kill in anger? What does “gun owners” mean? How adequate were the cited research studies? Has the author lied with stats by trying to impress us with large rounded off numbers? What possible benefits of gun control are not mentioned?

Who Cares?:

Who Cares? Deciding when to use a critical approach stems from the importance of the issue. Only you can answer the question Who Cares?

Weak-Sense Critical Thinking:

Weak-Sense Critical Thinking When arguments are only applied to defending your position and not to arriving at the truth, that is weak-sense critical thinking. This type of thinking does not use the full potential of critical thinking to explicate the truth of the issue.

Strong-Sense Critical Thinking:

Strong-Sense Critical Thinking Critical Thinkers who are willing to examine their own beliefs as well as those of others are using critical thinking to its fullest potential. Already held opinions do not have to be eliminated, only examined. No right answers, only better answers.

Critical Questions:

Critical Questions What are the issues and the conclusions? What are the reasons? Which words or phrases are ambiguous? What are the value conflicts and assumptions? What are the descriptive assumptions? Are there any fallacies in the reasoning? How good is the evidence? Are there rival causes? Are the statistics deceptive? What significant information is omitted? What reasonable conclusions are possible?

Traits of a Critical Thinker:

Traits of a Critical Thinker I. Autonomy: Form your own position by gathering info from others II. Curiosity: Care enough about the question to dig deeper III. Humility: Realize that you will make mistakes and move on IV. Respect for good reasoning: Learn to value a good argument when you see one.

2. CT as Social Activity:

2. CT as Social Activity Critical Thinking must be done while listening and paying attention to the arguer. How you interact with others is governed to a large extent by your value systems. What ideas or ideals do you value most?

What are Values?:

What are Values? “Values are the unstated ideas that people see as worthwhile. They provide standards of conduct by which we measure the quality of human behavior.” What are your values?

Value Exercise:

Value Exercise The next slide has a list of value priorities. Discuss the values in your groups. You may add values to the list if you like. Values are often not an either or proposition, but a range of priorities. Decide individually on the other side of the spectrum for each value. “Not” answers are not allowed. Then go through the list and decide which values are most important to you. Each person will turn in their page on Friday.

Common Values:

Common Values Adventure Ambition Autonomy Collective Responsibility Comfort Competition Cooperation Courage Excellence Flexibility Freedom of Speech Generosity Harmony Honesty Justice Rationality Security Spontaneity Tolerance Tradition Wisdom Add others on the back.

Value Spectra:

Value Spectra Adventure Ambition Autonomy Collective Responsibility Comfort Competition Cooperation Courage Excellence Comfort Satisfaction Community Responsibility Self-reliance Noncompliance Cooperation Independence Caution Independence

Value Spectra Continued:

Value Spectra Continued Flexibility Freedom of Speech Generosity Harmony Honesty Justice Rationality Security Spontaneity Tolerance Tradition Wisdom Integrity Respect for others Self-sufficiency Individuality Discretion Clemency Emotion Risk-taking Planning Absolute standards Innovation Reaction

3. Issues and Conclusions:

3. Issues and Conclusions One of the first things to do when examining an argument is to identify the issue and conclusion. (Could be more than one in a complex argument.) What is the important point of the discussion?

Two Kinds of Issues:

Two Kinds of Issues Descriptive Prescriptive

Descriptive Issues or Questions:

Descriptive Issues or Questions These issues describe the way the world is in the arguer’s mind. Descriptive questions or statements Do families who own pets argue less? What five things cause high blood pressure? Who decided to lower our taxes? College will cost 30,000 per year in 2020.

Prescriptive Issue or Question:

Prescriptive Issue or Question Prescriptive Issues address how the arguer thinks the world should be. Should capital punishment be abolished? What ought to be done about unemployment? SUVs should be outlawed to help conserve fuel. We should send more troops into Afghanistan.

Descriptive or Prescriptive?:

Descriptive or Prescriptive? What contributes to the cost of textbooks? Why do students spend too much time with their computers, smart phones, and 8-track tape players? How much time do students spend text messaging? Why is alcohol consumption by underage drinkers on the rise? Why is the cost of textbooks so high? What should JMU do about drinking by first–year students?

Finding the Issue and Conclusion:

Finding the Issue and Conclusion Sometimes it is easier to find the issue and use it to find the conclusion. Other times it is easy to find the conclusion and use it to identify the issue. Could go either way, but there are clues.

Clues to finding the conclusion:

Clues to finding the conclusion 1. Ask what the issue is. Check the title of the piece Check the opening or closing paragraph. Skim the article or, if all else fails, read it carefully.

Finding the Conclusion cont.:

Finding the Conclusion cont. 2. Look for indicator words Consequently Hence In fact Therefore Thus In short It follows that Shows that Indicates Obviously Suggests that It should be clear that We may deduce that Points to the conclusion that My point is Proves that …something that is obvious to even the most casual observer

Example: Find the Indicators:

Example: Find the Indicators But now, more than two years after voters overwhelmingly approved the lottery, it has been proven that the game is not a success; in fact, it can be considered a failure. First of all, during the campaign for passage of the lottery, the public was repeatedly told that the proceeds would go toward curing the financial ills of both higher education institutions and local primary and secondary schools. It was on this premise that the lottery received overwhelming support from the public. Not until it was approved, however, was it widely conceded that lottery profits would go into the general fund instead of the state’s education budget. Less than half of the lottery’s profits go to education.

Finding the Conclusion cont.,:

Finding the Conclusion cont., Look in likely locations. Beginning of the article. Authors often put in an opening paragraph stating their intention. In scientific articles, this function is fulfilled by the abstract. Ending of the article. Some helpful authors summarize their conclusions at the end.

Finding the Conclusions cont.,:

Finding the Conclusions cont., Remember what a conclusion is not. Example Statistics Definitions Background Information Evidence These all contribute to the conclusion, but are not the conclusion.

Finding the Conclusion cont.,:

Finding the Conclusion cont., Check the context of the communication and the author’s background. Do you know anything about the author or the group the author works for?

Finding the Conclusion:

Finding the Conclusion 6. Ask the question “and therefore?” Probing further is often a good idea. Is there an implied conclusion hidden in the argument?

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion Daycare centers and babysitters are becoming more and more popular as greater numbers of women enter the workforce. Although mothers may enjoy working outside the home, they might be harming their children when they hand them over to someone else for care during work hours. This current trend means that some women return to their workplace very soon after a child has been born. Although job requirements may prompt this hasty return to the workforce, women must reevaluate their priorities. Having a child is a major responsibility, and women must realize that children must come first. Who can provide the love and attention that young children desperately need for their emotional and physical development? While a babysitter might feel affection for a child, only a mother could offer her child unconditional love and encouragement. Also, children do not get as much individual attention at day care centers. While a job might provide extra money for a household, mothers must realize that their children are more valuable than money. Therefore, mothers should stay at home with their children.

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion When people consider the subject of false or repressed memories, many seem to discount hypnosis as a plausible procedure. The media has printed numerous stories of the false accusations made by people under hypnosis. In fact, hypnosis is a credible method of treatment in a variety of areas. Hypnosis can be used for medical treatment as a method of relaxation. Hypnotized patients learn to focus their attention on particular aspects of their environment and ignore the rest. Furthermore, psychologists also use hypnosis to treat neurotic symptoms, phobias, and memory problems. The existence of one negative use of hypnosis has clouded the beneficial aspects of the procedure. Although a few cases of false memories have arisen from the use of hypnosis, it is still often a useful treatment procedure.

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion Studies suggest that setting aside time for recess for high-school-aged students makes them more alert; thus they have higher grades. Several high schools across the country have experimented with twenty-minute or thirty-minute blocks of free time for the students to either exercise or spend time with friends. This time permits students to relax and not get burned out on thinking for seven hours a day. Researchers noticed that classes taken later in the day at these schools had a higher-than-normal number of students with grades of A’s and B’s. It seems clear that recess is a helpful tool for students to be more academically successful in school.

Handgun control:

2. Finding the Reasons :

2. Finding the Reasons Issues and conclusions by themselves are merely interesting opinions. Need reasons to make an argument. “Because I say so,” does not constitute an argument. It just means “Don’t argue.”

Reasons cont.:

Reasons cont. When finding the reasons for the argument, do not try to decide if the reasons are valid. Merely enumerating them is the first step. Try to put yourself in the other person’s position.

Reasons cont. :

Reasons cont. Identifier words and phrases for Reasons As a result of Because First, . . . . Second, … For example For one thing, For the reason that, In view of Is supported by Since the evidence is … Researchers have found that …

IDing and Organizing Reasoning:

IDing and Organizing Reasoning Circle the indicator words. Underline the reasons and conclusions in different colors. Label the reasons and conc. in margin. After reading long passages, make a list of reasons at the end. If the reasoning is especially complicated, diagram the structure with numbers and arrows to indicate the path.

Example:

Example In high school, men’s basketball and football usually dominate the Friday night schedule. Should it be that way? These games are significant to the high school experience, but not at the cost of the other sports in the school. Just because it has been a tradition does not mean that the format has to remain that way. It is easier for most parents and other fans to make it out to the game on Friday nights. Therefore, it is easier for them to come see the men’s basketball or football games. What about the girl’s basketball team or the swim team? Their games should not always be stuck on weekday afternoons and evenings. Their families often are not able to make it out to see them because most are working during the afternoons. The students who play these “secondary” sports are not getting a fair share of the spotlight; the schedule should change to accommodate these other sports.

Example: Finding the Reasons:

Example: Finding the Reasons Speedy, colorful jet skis are gaining in popularity. Jet skis can travel anywhere a small boat can and are typically popular with young people. The rising popularity of the craft has raised the question of jet ski regulation. In this case, the argument for strict regulation is compelling. Jet skis are a particularly deadly form of water recreation. For example, two women were vacationing in Longboat Key. While they were floating on a raft along the shore, a jet ski crashed into them and killed them. Also, jet ski operators have been killed or seriously injured in collisions with other watercraft. Others have been stranded at sea when their jet skis either failed or sank far from shore. Many jet ski operators are inexperienced and ignorant of navigational rules, increasing the potential for accidents. In addition to the inherent operational hazards of jet skis, they are proving to be an environmental nuisance. Beach residents complain of the intrusive noise of the jet skis. The Pacific Whale Foundation on the West Coast expressed concern that the jet skis are frightening away endangered humpback whales that migrate to Hawaii for breeding. Regulations stipulating minimum operating age, restricted operating areas, and mandatory classes in water safety are essential. Without such regulations, tragedies involving jet skis are sure to multiply, rendering many beaches unsafe for recreation.

Recap:

Recap So far we have learned how to find the issue and conclusion in an author’s argument and the reasons that the person cites to support the conclusion. Where do we go now? We need to examine the words used to form the reasons, issue, and conclusion.

3. Vague and Ambiguous Words:

3. Vague and Ambiguous Words As we experience more and more of the effects of what seems to be global warming, we need to consider restrictions on our current way of life. Unless we stop living the way we have been living, we will surely drown as the oceans get larger and larger from the melting of the ice cap. What does this passage mean?

Vague and Ambiguous Words and Phrases:

Vague and Ambiguous Words and Phrases In our highly complex language, words can have many different meanings. Examples: Freedom Obscenity Happiness Technology Energy

Ambiguity cont.:

Ambiguity cont. While many words and phrases can have a fuzzy meaning, we don’t have to worry about all the words in an argument, just the key elements. These are the elements that directly support the conclusion the author is trying to get you to accept.

Clues to locating Key Terms:

Clues to locating Key Terms Review the issue for possible key terms. Look for crucial words and phrases within the reasons and conclusions. Keep an eye out for abstract words and phrases in general. Use reverse role-playing to determine how someone might define certain words and phrases differently.

Checking for Ambiguity:

Checking for Ambiguity After finding the key terms that could be ambiguous, ask the question “Do I understand the meaning?” Don’t assume that you know the author’s meaning. Keep an open mind. If you can express two or more alternative meanings for a key term and they make sense in context and they affect that reason’s ability to support a conclusion, then the ambiguity is significant.

Examples for ambiguity checks:

Examples for ambiguity checks No-Pain is the extra-strength pain reliever VanMusk Perfume: Just a step beyond your dreams. Ray Rhinestone’s new album: an album of experiences. Vital Hair Vitamins show you what vitamins can do for your hair.

Vague words:

Vague words “Even as many activists within the movement (the TEA Party) praised her (Christine O’Donnell’s) victory as a strike for the everywoman against elite politicians, strange stories about O’Donnell emerge daily.” Washington Post Sept. 19, 2010

Ambiguity Example:

Ambiguity Example It is time to take active steps in reducing the amount of violence on television. The adverse effect of such violence is clear, as evidenced by many recent research studies. Several studies indicate that heavy TV watchers tend to overestimate the danger of physical violence in real life. Other studies show that children who are heavy TV watchers can become desensitized to violence in the real world. Numerous other studies demonstrate the adverse effects of TV violence.

Importance of Context:

Importance of Context Terms are more or less ambiguous depending on the context in which they are presented. Sometimes the rest of the article will define the term enough to remove most of the doubt. Example: Studies show that most people who undergo psychotherapy benefit from the experience. In fact, a recent study shows that after ten sessions of psychotherapy, two-thirds of participants reported experiencing less anxiety.

Ambiguity cont.:

Ambiguity cont. Ambiguous terms allow you to disagree with the premise of the article. If you can see a term and come up with a meaning that is plausible, but not what the author intended, then you might reject the author’s argument. The author’s conclusion is weakened as a result.

Ambiguity cont.:

Ambiguity cont. Dictionaries can be helpful in interpreting the meaning of the author’s term, but they are not foolproof. Example: “Quality of Education” You can look up quality and find the synonyms “excellence” or “superiority.” Does that help?

Inadequacies of the Dictionary:

Inadequacies of the Dictionary “The quality of education at this university is not declining. In my interviews, I found that an overwhelming majority of the students and instructors responded that they saw no decline in the quality of education here.” What does “quality of education” mean?

Creating a Mental Picture:

Creating a Mental Picture “Attending college has the effect of creating better citizens. Thus it is disappointing to see how state legislators supported by voters, keep raising the tuition for prospective students. Do they know some secret, cheap technique for achieving a strong democracy that makes college unnecessary? What is a “better citizen?”

Loaded Language:

Loaded Language Revenue Enhancement Bailout Terrorist Drilling for Oil in Gulf Company Challenges Health Insure Reform End of Life Counseling Tax and Spend Pols Lifeline Patriot Energy Exploration Company Problems Socialized Medicine Death Panels

When is enough enough?:

When is enough enough? How far should you go in trying to determine an author or speaker’s intent if they use ambiguous language? All you can do is ask questions. If after that, the meaning is unclear, you don’t have to accept their argument. Don’t automatically accept the opposite side though. They may be equally vague.

Summary:

Summary Once you have searched out all the key terms and thought about their possible meanings, you will have determined four very important components of the author’s message: Key terms and phrases Which of these are adequately defined Which of these have other possible definitions, which when substituted, would modify your reaction to the reasoning. Which of these are ambiguous within the context of the argument.

Example 1:

Example 1 We should treat drug use in the same way we treat speech and religion, as a fundamental right. No one has to ingest any drug he does not want, just as no one has to read a particular book. Insofar as the state, the only reason the state assumes control over such matters, is to subjugate its citizens—by protecting them from temptations as befits children, and by preventing them from exercising self-determination over their lives as befits slaves.

Example 2:

Example 2 Sugary cereal is the downfall of many of us. Brightly colored boxes with marshmallows and colored rice puffs are what far too many of us are eating for breakfast. Often times, these cereals have no more nutrition than a candy bar! This is not the proper way to send kids off to school. It is extremely difficult to focus in school when one has eaten a bowl full of sugar and chemicals. Research has shown that children who eat a healthy, organic breakfast earn better grades in school. In addition, adults report feeling more ready for the day and more efficient at work when they eat a healthy breakfast.

Answers to Sugary Cereal Exercise:

Answers to Sugary Cereal Exercise (2) Issue/ Conc : Everyone should eat a nutritious breakfast (3) Reasons: Hard to focus when you eat sugar and chemicals. Supporting fact: Most breakfast cereal is not nutritious. 2. Research shows that children do better on a variety of things after eating a nutritious breakfast. Adults report feeling better after a good breakfast. (2) Vague words: nutrition, ready, efficient (maybe) (3) Question: What do they consider a nutritious breakfast? What do they mean by nutrition? How does one feel when they are ready? Efficient?

Chap 6. Value Conflicts and Assumptions:

Chap 6. Value Conflicts and Assumptions Sometimes the most important part of an argument is not even stated. We all have an underlying set of beliefs that color what we think and how we think about the world. Consider the following: “The government should prohibit the manufacture and sale of cigarettes. More and more evidence has demonstrated that smoking has harmful effects on the health of both the smoker and those exposed to smoking.” Does the reason support the conclusion?

Value Conflicts:

Value Conflicts The reason in the previous passage only supports the conclusion if you believe that it is the responsibility of the government to safeguard its citizens in every way. Who is responsible for our health?

Value assumptions cont.:

Value assumptions cont. Assumptions are Hidden or unstated Taken for granted Influential to determining the conclusion Potentially deceptive or at least difficult to interpret. Value assumptions are about how the world should be, not about how it actually works.

Value Assumptions:

Value Assumptions Finding the hidden assumptions in an argument is essential. It would also aid communication if we all tried to identify the assumptions in our own thinking and make them clear to others.

Finding the Assumptions:

Finding the Assumptions How do we find the important assumptions? First find the conclusion and the reasons supporting that conclusion. As the author moves from the reasons to the conclusion, the assumptions will come into play. They will not be spelled out. They would not be assumptions if they were. Assumptions are unstated beliefs that support the reasoning.

Example:

Example “Governments should not legalize recreational drugs. Illegal drugs cause too much street violence and other crimes.” This argument only makes sense if we understand the value assumption here. What is it?

Value assumptions cont.:

Value assumptions cont. The previous example only makes sense if you agree with the author’s value of public safety over an individual’s right to choose what they ingest. The conclusion makes sense then that recreational drugs should not be legalized. Is the author making a descriptive assumption that drug use causes street crime?

Value Assumptions:

Value Assumptions Reason: Illegal drugs cause violence and other crimes. Value Assumption: Public safety is more important than freedom of choice Conclusion: Therefore recreational drugs should not be legalized. +

Values and Value Assumptions:

Values and Value Assumptions Most people have basically the same values. Where people differ most is in the relative importance of those values. Which ones come first? Value assumptions also often depend on the context. In one situation, a certain value would dominate, but in a different situation or a more extreme situation, another might hold sway.

Value Conflicts and Controversies:

Value Conflicts and Controversies Loyalty-Honesty Competition-Cooperation Freedom of Press- National Security Equality-Individualism Order-Freedom of Speech Security-Excitement Generosity-Material Success Rationality-Spontaneity Should you tell your parents about your sister’s drug habit? Should students be compared to their classmates in grading? Is it wise to hold weekly press conferences? Are racial quotas for employment fair? Should we imprison those with radical ideas? Should you choose a dangerous profession? Is it desirable to give financial help to a beggar? Should you check the odds before placing a bet?

Value Assumptions cont.:

Value Assumptions cont. Knowing the author’s background or affiliations gives us a clue regarding possible value assumptions he might have. But, remember that these are only clues. Even if someone is a member of a group, she might not have all the same views as the group.

Value Assumptions and Consequences:

Value Assumptions and Consequences “Nuclear power plants should not be built because they will pollute our environment.” What are the priorities of the holder of this belief? Environment over available power? Would that change if we were talking about a huge leak of radiation or just a few background millirems?

Digging Deeper:

Digging Deeper “Cities built in the desert, like Phoenix and Las Vegas, work hard to attract tourists and the jobs those tourists create. The economic well being of current residents is greatly enhanced by making the cities more attractive to new business. To make their cities more attractive, the price of water in those cities is often cheaper than the price of water in areas of the country where water is abundant. So it is quite common to see beautiful green lawns in these desert locations. The idea that we would reduce the limited supply of water and thereby deny future generations an adequate supply of water is a disgrace that we should repair.”

Digging Deeper cont.:

Digging Deeper cont. What values does the writer hold? On a basic level we can say that water and the future are this person’s values. Can we make that more general? The writer possibly values conservation of natural resources over public comfort and has an empathy for future generations over the present one. Can we go further than that?

Digging Deeper cont.:

Digging Deeper cont. Can we figure out the relative values or the tensions this person faces? The author might value conservation over economic development to an extent. (He does not say the cities should not have been built). The author might believe that people need to pay their own way and not be subsidized by the government.

Finding Value Assumptions:

Finding Value Assumptions Congress is attempting to pass legislation that will reduce the level of commercial exploitation currently present in children’s TV programming. The proposal calls for limitations on the number and types of commercials permitted during children’s programs. This proposal has met with great opposition from those who insist that parents, not legislators, should monitor TV viewing. They maintain that parents alone must take responsibility for what their children watch. Supporters of the proposal, however, point out that children’s shows have turned into half-hour commercials. They insist that government regulation is necessary to protect children from the blatant exploitation of commercialism. They demand that children’s programming respect the special needs and relative immaturity of the young, rather than manipulate them for profit.

Finding Value Assumptions:

Finding Value Assumptions Students should obey a dress code that includes uniforms, shoe restrictions, and hair length. In such an educational setting, teachers can teach and students can learn. Valuable time and energy will not be wasted on the discipline problems that arise in the absence of a rigid dress code.

Practice with Value Assumptions:

Practice with Value Assumptions For each of the following examples do the following: Identify the Conclusion Identify the Reasons Identify the Value Assumptions.

Value Assumptions Passage 1:

Value Assumptions Passage 1 Brazil is one of the few countries that possess precious rainforests. It is also a poor country relying on the destruction of the rainforest to supply much of its income. Brazilians use the rainforest to make products to fuel industrialized nations’ craving for comfortable living and “all natural” products. What we need to do in industrialized nations is raise tariffs drastically on rainforest products not only from Brazil but also from all countries that destroy rainforests. The entire world needs to recognize the rapid dwindling of this precious ecosystem, and tariffs are the tool to give a wake-up call to these equatorial countries. Tariffs would make it cost more to produce and sell rainforest products and ultimately make it less and less attractive to do business in these ecosystems.

Value Assumptions Passage 2:

Value Assumptions Passage 2 For most people, college is a waste of time and money. One does not need schools to learn. If you go to college to make it possible to earn more money, you have been had. More than half of those who earn more than $35,000 never received a college diploma. What you do learn in college is rarely useful on the job. Most of you would be better off saving part of the money you earn while your naïve friends are in college.

Solutions:

Solutions Issue: College education is unnecessary for earning a living Value Tensions Interesting/responsible/leadership career vs pay Intellectual vs Manual Skill Investment vs Immediate Gratification Descriptive assumption: Physical labor and/or common sense jobs are better than intellectual jobs

Value Assumptions Passage 3:

Value Assumptions Passage 3 I would not like to see women in combat. If a war breaks out, all of us want only the most qualified people to be fighting for our country. I fear that women would not be able to handle the emotional strains involved in battle. Their strength as humans is in caring and nurturing. Let’s let them do what they can do best. And just to show that I have no gender bias against women, I want to point out that men are too weak to fight when women are present. They would be distracted by the desire to protect their female comrades. Men are weak in this regard. In conclusion, the needs of women, men, and our country in general speak against permitting women to go into combat.

Descriptive Assumptions:

Descriptive Assumptions Last time we discussed assumptions people make about how the world SHOULD be. Now we want to consider assumptions people make about the way the world IS. These are Descriptive Assumptions.

Descriptive Assumptions cont.:

Descriptive Assumptions cont. “You will learn a lot from Professor Starr. His students all rave about his lectures.” What Descriptive Assumptions are being made here?

Descriptive Assumptions:

Descriptive Assumptions Assumption 1. Student reviews are a good indicator of the quality of the lecture. This is a descriptive connecting assumption . Assumption 2. Lectures are the source of most of the learning in a class. This is a definitional assumption because it assumes that learning is defined as absorbing material from a lecture and not developing critical thinking skills for example. Do you agree with these? Once you find the assumptions, then you can decide if you agree with them.

Descriptive Assumptions cont.:

Descriptive Assumptions cont. If you do not agree with the descriptive assumptions in an argument, then you would reject the conclusion based on the evidence and reasons that the writer presents.

How to Locate the Assumptions:

How to Locate the Assumptions 1. Keep thinking about the gap between the conclusion and the reasons. 2. Look for ideas that support the reasons. 3. Identify with the writer or speaker. 4. Identify with the opposition. 5. Recognize the potential existence of other means of attaining the advantages referred to in the reasons.

1. Conclusion/Reason Gap:

1. Conclusion/Reason Gap Look for what the writer would have had to take for granted to link the reasons and conclusions. If the reason is true, what else would have to be true for the conclusion to follow? Supposing the reason were true, is there any way in which the conclusion could be false?

2. Ideas that Support Reasons:

2. Ideas that Support Reasons Conclusion: We need to spend more money on AIDS education. Reason: If we do so, it will greatly reduce the number of cases of AIDS. Ideas or descriptive assumptions Money will be spent effectively and the right people will be reached. Those who are reached will respond and protect themselves.

3. Identify with the Author:

3. Identify with the Author Digging into the background of the author will often clarify his mindset. An executive for a coal mining company might argue that strip mining does not harm the environment because deep down he feels that strip mining is beneficial. He puts industrial gain ahead of the environment.

4. Identify with the Opposition:

4. Identify with the Opposition The opposite tactic could also work. Try to think about why someone would disagree with the conclusions. How would an environmentalist view strip mining? They would put the environment ahead of industrial advantage.

5. See other ways to get to the same end:

5. See other ways to get to the same end Even if a conclusion is seen as an end in itself, there might be other ways to attain the same end. If you can think of those ways, then you realize that the author’s conclusion was reached because of an assumption. Example: Should first year students be allowed to choose their own courses? Yes, it would get them to be more responsible. Others would say that responsibility could be fostered in less dangerous ways. Already done by students living and working on their own. Thus the author made the assumption that his way was the only way to promote responsibility.

Applying the Clues:

Applying the Clues “The immense attraction of rock music for college students is having a negative impact on their scholarship. Books no longer claim the enthusiasm that is now directed to the rock star of the week. How can we expect students to struggle with a lengthy passage from Plato when they have become accustomed to experiencing the throbbing, pulsating, primitive excitement of rock music? Such music provides premature ecstasy--like a drug--an instant ecstasy that books and the classroom cannot provide them. Furthermore, with the prevalence of the IPod, students can be constantly plugged into music. With so much time devoted to music (the hours spent online downloading music, time spent at concerts, not to mention listening time alone), studies must suffer. Not only is rock music competing for our students’ attention, but, increasingly, students are turning to rock for answers to both personal and universal problems. The socially conscious rock star is the new hero of the young. The solutions offered by such rock stars, however, are guilty of oversimplification. The weighty problems of the day cannot be adequately addressed in a five-minute lyric. Nevertheless, students are absorbing the words of millionaire musicians with far more reverence than they display toward their lessons or professors.”

Issue: Rock music is distracting students from their studies.:

Issue: Rock music is distracting students from their studies. Descriptive Assumptions Students spend all their time either studying or listening to rock music. Students pay attention to the lyrics. Other types of music do not have the same detrimental effect.

Summary on finding Descriptive Assumptions.:

Summary on finding Descriptive Assumptions. 1. Keep thinking about the gap between the conclusion and reasons. 2. Look for ideas that support the reasons. 3. Identify with the opposition. 4. Recognize the potential existence of other means of attaining the advantages referred to in the reasons. 5. Learn more about the issues.

Examples:

Examples Should it be legal for newspaper and TV reporters to refuse to reveal their confidential sources? Indeed it should. The reporter-informant relationship is, after all, similar to those of priest and penitent, lawyer and client, physician and patient--all of which have a degree of privacy under the law. Moreover, if that relationship were not protected, the sources of information needed by the public would dry up.

Example 1:

Example 1 Conclusion: It should be legal for newspaper and television reporters to refuse to reveal their confidential sources. Reasons The reporter-informant relationship is special. If the relationship is not protected, sources of information will dry up.

Assumptions:

Assumptions Fact or assumption? Relationships are quite similar. Are they? Priest and Penitent Lawyer and Client Physician and Patient 2. Fact or Assumption? Reporters would not be able to get information if people knew they would be revealed.

Examples cont.:

Examples cont. Critical thinking programs will not work. Critical-thinking skills should be taught like all other bodily skills, by coaching, not by combining lectures with textbooks that claim to teach people specific thinking skills. After all, we don’t teach doctors and lawyers how to think critically by giving them a course in critical thinking. We require them to use critical-thinking skills in all courses that they are taught. We teach them by coaching, by providing lots of practice and corrective feedback. Thinking is not a skill that can be taught in isolation from other mental acts and from the content of our disciplines. Instead of developing critical-thinking programs, we should be making sure that our students are coached in critical thinking in all their courses. If all our teachers would act as coaches and require our students to think about what is being taught instead of having them memorize the facts, then we would not need critical-thinking courses.

Example 2:

Example 2 Conclusion: Critical thinking programs will not work. Instead we should make sure that students are coached in critical thinking skills in all their courses. Reason Such skills can be better taught by coaching students within their respective disciplines. Supporting Reasons Lawyers and physicians are taught by coaching, not by critical thinking courses. Thinking cannot be taught apart from the content of a discipline.

Assumptions:

Assumptions First assumption is that discipline centered courses actually coach students in critical thinking skills as such. Many do not. Second assumption is that procedures to train lawyers and doctors are successful and such training is typical of training in other disciplines. Maybe a critical thinking course would help them. Third assumption is that it would not be of any use to do both.

Examples cont.:

Examples cont. Values should not be taught in public schools. Teachers are not trained theologians and such teaching results in the illegal union of church and state. Second, it would be extremely insensitive towards students of minority religion. School should be the place for the exploration of new ideas and sensitivity towards those ideas. Anyway, teachers are not necessarily the best choices for value educators. They are merely adults who went to college and have no special moral understanding.

Example 3:

Example 3 Conclusion: Values should not be taught in public school. Reason 1. Teachers are not trained theologians and teaching values would intermix church and state. Assumption 1: Values are religious and carry with them religious baggage. Assumption 2: Teachers only teach ideas with right or wrong answers. Reason 2. Teaching values would offend minority religions. Assumption 3. Teaching values would involve right or wrong answers and not a dialog on the polarities. Reason 3. Teachers might not be the best sources of value education. Assumption 4. We should only use the best kind of teachers of any one subject.

Chap 7. Finding the Fallacies:

Chap 7. Finding the Fallacies So far we have been focusing on the argument and conclusions and how they fit together. Now we want to look at the reasons given in the argument and see which ones are worth believing. This means finding the fallacies in the argument. A fallacy is a reasoning “trick” that an author might use while trying to persuade you to accept a conclusion. We looked at a long list of fallacies before. We will now go back to the more common ones and look at them carefully, but also consider the theory behind them and why they arise.

Fallacies arise from bad reasoning:

Fallacies arise from bad reasoning Good reasoning has three main parts: Evaluate premises carefully and correctly Consider all evidence Support conclusions with evidence Fallacies arise when these premises are not followed either deliberately or accidentally.

Kinds of Fallacies:

Kinds of Fallacies There are so many fallacies that it is hard to keep track of them all. We can group them into three main categories though: 1. Questionable Premise (Accepting ideas that we should not accept) 2. Suppressed Evidence (Selectively choosing what we want to believe) 3. Invalid Inference (Drawing conclusions not sufficiently supported by evidence)

Questionable Premise Examples:

Questionable Premise Examples Appeals to Authority (very common) Inconsistency (very common) Avoiding the Question Questionable statements in general Deal with this problem by always questioning statements if you do not know them to be true. Don’t just dismiss them, but go for the proof.

Appeals to Authority:

Appeals to Authority Appealing to Authority can be invalid for several reasons: Using an untrustworthy authority. Using an authority in a field that is not relevant to the argument. Using an expert who is not objective. Expecting too much from an authority. Relying on experts for the last word.

Inconsistency:

Inconsistency Being inconsistent means Using self-contradictory statements in one argument. Arguing one way to one person and an opposite way to another. Saying one thing and doing another.

Suppressed Evidence:

Suppressed Evidence Straw Man False Dilemma Suppressed Evidence in general (catchall for many cases that do not have special names) Tokenism (Using an isolated incidence to mask an overall tendency to do the opposite.)

Invalid Inference:

Invalid Inference Ad Hominem Two Wrongs Make a Right Irrelevant Reason Equivocation Appeal to Ignorance Composition Slippery Slope Hasty Conclusion Small Sample Unrepresentative Sample Questionable Cause Questionable Analogy Questionable Statistics Questionable Use of Good Statistics Polls False Charge of Fallacy Quibbling

Steps to take in finding fallacies:

Steps to take in finding fallacies Identify the conclusions and reasons. Always keep the conclusion in mind and consider reasons that you think might be relevant to it; contrast these reasons with the author’s reasons. Determine whether the reason states a specific and/or concrete advantage or a disadvantage; if not, be wary! Identify any necessary assumption by asking yourself, “If the reason were true, what would one have to believe for it to logically support the conclusion, and does one have to believe it for the reason to be true?” Ask yourself, “Do these assumptions make sense?” If an obviously erroneous assumption is being made, you have found a fallacy in reasoning and that reasoning can then be rejected. Check the possibility of being distracted from relevant reasons by phrases that strongly appeal to your emotions.

Common Tricks in Arguments:

Common Tricks in Arguments Including reasons that involve erroneous or incorrect assumptions. Distracting the reader by making information seem relevant to the conclusion when it is not. Providing support for the conclusion that depends on the conclusion already being true.

Example:

Example Dear Editor. I was shocked by your paper’s support of Senator Spendall’s arguments for a tax hike to increase state money available for improving highways. Of course the Senator favors such a hike. What else would you expect from a tax- and-spend liberal?

Ad Hominem Argument:

Ad Hominem Argument Def: An attack, or an insult, on a person, rather than directly addressing the person’s reasons or message. John Kerry was a “flip-flopper” so he would not make a good President. Anyone who does not support the President’s conduct of the war in Iraq is a “terrorist.”

Example:

Example The question involved in this legislation is not really a question of whether alcohol consumption is or is not detrimental to health. Rather, it is a question of whether Congress is willing to have the FCC make an arbitrary decision that prohibits alcohol advertising on radio and TV. If we should permit the FCC to take this action in regard to alcohol, what is there to prevent it from deciding next year that candy is detrimental to the public health in that it causes obesity, tooth decay, and other health problems? What about milk and eggs? Milk and eggs are high in saturated animal fat and no doubt increase the cholesterol in the bloodstream, believed by many heart specialists to be a contributing factor in heart disease. Do we want the FCC to be able to prohibit the advertising of milk, eggs, butter, and ice cream on TV? Also we all know that no action by the federal government, however drastic, can or will be effective in eliminating alcohol consumption completely. If people want to drink alcoholic beverages, they will find a way to do so.

Slippery Slope:

Slippery Slope Def. Making the assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events, when procedures exist to prevent such a chain of events. If the FCC prohibits advertising alcohol, then they won’t allow any advertising.

Searching for Perfect Solutions:

Searching for Perfect Solutions Def. Falsely assuming that because part of a problem would remain after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted. Restricting the ads will not stop people from drinking completely, so ads should be allowed.

Example:

Example It is about time that we make marijuana an option for people in chronic severe pain. We approve drugs when society reaches a consensus about their value, and there is clearly now a consensus for such approval. A recent survey of public opinion reported that 73% thought medical marijuana should be allowed. In addition, the California Association for the Treatment of AIDS Victims supports smoking marijuana as a treatment option for AIDS patients. Anyone who would not support the legalization of medical marijuana has never sat for hours with someone crying out in pain and pleading to die just to stop the pain.

Equivocation:

Equivocation Def. A key word is used with two or more meanings in an argument such that the argument fails to make sense once the shifts in meaning are recognized. In this example, consensus is the term that is misused.

Ad Populum (Appeal to Popularity):

Ad Populum (Appeal to Popularity) Def. An attempt to justify a claim by appealing to sentiments that large groups of people have in common; falsely assumes that anything favored by a large group of people is desirable. In this example, just because the author claims that many people favor the use of medicinal marijuana, that doesn’t mean pot is a good thing.

Appeal to Questionable Authority:

Appeal to Questionable Authority Def. Supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks special expertise on the issue at hand. In this passage, the California AIDS group is not an especially authoritative or unbiased group on the overall effects of smoking pot.

Example :

Example I am against the government’s child-development program. First, I am interested in protecting the children of this country. They need to be protected from social planners and self-righteous ideologues who would disrupt the normal course of life and tear them from their mothers and families to make them pawns in a universal scheme designed to produce infinite happiness in 20 years. Children should grow up with their mothers, not with a series of caretakers and nurses’ aides. What is at issue is whether parents shall continue to have the right to form the characters of their children, or whether the State with all its power should be given the tools and techniques for forming the young.

Straw Person:

Straw Person Def. Distorting the opponent’s point of view so that it is easy to attack; thus we attack a point of view that does not truly exist. In this case, the daycare proposal would not be to remove the children from the home completely, just while the parents are working.

Either/Or (False Dilemma):

Either/Or (False Dilemma) Def. Assuming only two alternatives exist when it is possible that there are more than two. There can be no alternatives to the administration’s plans for Iraq because you either “stay the course” or “cut and run.”

Example:

Example It doesn’t make sense for you to give pop quizzes to your class, Mr. Henriksen. It just makes a lot of extra work for you and makes the students nervous. Students should not need pop quizzes to motivate them to prepare for each class.

Wishful Thinking:

Wishful Thinking Def. Making the faulty assumption that because we wish X were true or false, then X is indeed true or false.

Example:

Example In response to her father’s heavy drinking, an adult daughter asks her mother, “Why is Dad behaving so strangely.” Her mother replies, “He’s having a midlife crisis.” A patient cries every time his counselor asks about his childhood. An intern who watched the counseling session asks the counselor, after the patient has left. “Why does he cry when you ask about his youth?” The counselor replies, “He’s neurotic.”

Explaining by Naming:

Explaining by Naming Def. Falsely assuming that because you have provided a name for some event or behavior that you have also adequately explained the event. This type of fallacy provides what seems like an explanation, but is really not. An explanation with any substance takes far more time and space than a simple name.

Example:

Example Political speech: In the upcoming election, you have the opportunity to vote for a woman who represents the future of this great nation, who has fought for democracy and defended our flag, and who has been decisive, confident, and courageous in pursuing the American Dream. This is a caring woman who has supported our children and the environment and has helped move this country toward peace, prosperity, and freedom. A vote for Goodheart is a vote for truth, vision, and common sense.

Glittering Generality:

Glittering Generality Def. The use of vague, emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to approve of something without closely examining the reasons.

Example:

Example I don’t see how people can keep arguing that Japanese cars are a better buy than American cars. Why, just look at the recent performance of the Japanese economy compared to the American economy. They have experienced three years of economic decline, while we have enjoyed three years of relative prosperity.

Red Herring:

Red Herring Def. An irrelevant topic is presented to divert attention from the original issue and help to “win” an argument by shifting attention away from the argumnet and to another issue. The fallacy sequence in this instance is as follows: a) Topic A is being discussed; b) Topic B is introduced as though it is relevant to Topic A, but it is not; c) Topic A is abandoned.

“Begging” the Question or “Avoiding” the Question:

“Begging” the Question or “Avoiding” the Question Def. An argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning. Example: Programmed-learning (step by step) texts are clearly superior to traditional texts in learning effectiveness because it is highly advantageous for learning to have materials presented in a step-by-step fashion.

Which Avoids the Question?:

Which Avoids the Question? To allow the press to keep their sources confidential is very advantageous to the country because it increases the likelihood that individuals will report evidence against powerful people. To allow the press to keep their sources confidential is very advantageous to the country because it is highly conducive to the interests of the larger community that private individuals should have the privilege of providing information to the press without being identified.

Reject reasoning when someone:

Reject reasoning when someone Attacks the person instead of the idea (Ad hominem) Assumes something will happen to its illogical extreme (Slippery Slope) Rejects a solution because it is not perfect Uses a misleading alternate meaning (Equivocates) Inappropriately appeals to common opinion Appeals to questionable authority Attacks a made up position (Straw person) Presents a faulty dilemma (Either or) Engages in wishful thinking Explains by naming Diverts attention from the issue Distracts with glittering generalities Uses a conclusion as proof for the conclusion (Begs the question)

Website for further practice:

Website for further practice http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

Practice Passages:

Practice Passages The surgeon general has overstepped his bounds by recommending that explicit sex education begin as early as third grade. It is obvious that he is yet another victim of the AIDS hysteria sweeping the nation. Unfortunately, his media-influenced announcement has given new life to those who favor explicit sex education—even to the detriment of the nation’s children. Sexuality has always been a topic of conversation reserved for the family. Only recently has sex education been forced on young children. The surgeon general’s recommendation removes the role of the family entirely. It should be up to parents to explain sex to their children in a manner with which they are comfortable. Sex education exclusive of the family is stripped of values or any sense of morality, and should thus be discouraged. For years families have taken the responsibility of sex education, and that’s the way it should remain. Sex education in schools encourages experimentation. Kids are curious. Letting them in on the secret of sex at such a young age will promote blatant promiscuity. Frank discussions of sex are embarrassing for children, and they destroy the natural modesty of girls.

Practice Passages:

Practice Passages Sandra: “I don’t see why you are so against permitting beer to be sold at the proposed pub on the campus of JMU. After all, a survey of our students shows that 80% are in favor of the proposal.” Joe: “Of course, you would be in favor of serving any alcoholic beverage at any time, anywhere. You are one of the biggest alcoholics on our campus.”

8. Examining the Evidence:

8. Examining the Evidence At the heart of every argument is the evidence. Evidence is composed of beliefs about the world. Beliefs can be conclusions, reasons or assumptions. All are factual claims. Factual claims differ in how much they can be trusted.

For example:

For example Eating spinach is good for your health. Capital punishment deters crime. College campuses are not safe. Time magazine reports that campus assaults have increased by 10% over the last three years. Facts or Factual Claims?

Evidence cont.:

Evidence cont. It is very difficult to establish the absolute truth or falseness of anything but the most narrowly defined factual claim. In general we talk about how dependable a factual claim is and not how absolutely true it is. Just as in a court case, facts are based on the preponderance of the evidence. The more evidence for a claim, the more dependable it might be. Factual claims without evidence are mere assertions.

Some Factual Claims:

Some Factual Claims The U.S. landed men on the Moon in the 1960s and 1970s. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories Highjacked airliners crashed into the World Trade Center on Sept. 11, 2001. Smoking causes lung cancer.

How do we judge the facts?:

How do we judge the facts? Questions we might be asking What is your proof? Where’s the evidence? How sure are you about your facts? How do you know it is true? Why do you believe that? Can you prove it?

Types of Factual Claims:

Types of Factual Claims Descriptive Conclusions Dieting may contribute to the development of eating disorders. Researchers studied the dieting histories and the severity of binge-eating episodes among 111 women enrolled in a treatment program for eating disorders and found that 60% of the women reported that their first eating binge followed their initial dieting attempts.

Factual Claims cont.:

Factual Claims cont. Reasons used to support conclusions. We should decrease the sizes of classes in our universities. Large classes are leading to greater student alienation, according to recent government statistics.

Factual Claims cont.:

Factual Claims cont. 3. Descriptive Assumptions We cannot afford any more immigrants in this country. The largest numbers of immigrants-over 6.5 million-have settled in California and cost CA alone an estimated 3 billion annually in extra health care, schooling, and other public services. (Unstated descriptive assumption linking the reason to the conclusion: The positive impact of immigrants on the economy, through such benefits as creating new jobs and paying taxes, is significantly less than the cost.)

When is a factual claim dependable?:

When is a factual claim dependable? When the claim appears to be undisputed common knowledge, such as the claim “running burns calories.” When the claim is the conclusion from a well-reasoned argument. When the claim is adequately supported by solid evidence in the same communication or by other evidence that we know. We will be concerned with the third case.

Definition of Evidence:

Definition of Evidence “Evidence is explicit information shared by the communicator that is used to back up or to justify the dependability of a factual claim. In prescriptive arguments, evidence will be needed to support reasons that are factual claims; in descriptive arguments, evidence will be needed to directly support a descriptive conclusion.”

Kinds of Evidence:

Kinds of Evidence Intuition Personal experience Testimonials Appeals to authorities Personal observations Case examples Research studies Analogies

Evidence cont.:

Evidence cont. Any of the seven types of evidence can be good evidence, but we have to ask ourselves… How good is it?

Intuition as Evidence:

Intuition as Evidence We all have hunches about things. Some may actually be valid. The problem with intuition is that it is private and unprovable, but the intuition of some people at some times can be evidence.

Personal Experience as Evidence:

Personal Experience as Evidence I grew up on a dairy farm, so I think everyone should have to shovel manure at some point in their life because it builds character. We must be very careful with using personal experiences as evidence for a conclusion. Often leads to the following fallacy: Hasty Generalization (def. Drawing a conclusion about a larger group based on experiences with only a few members of the group.)

Personal Testimonials as Evidence:

Personal Testimonials as Evidence Many ads use these as validation for buying a product. Such arguments are often . . . Selective Of vested interest Devoid of certain information Veiled behind the human appeal of the spokesperson.

Appeals to Authority as Evidence:

Appeals to Authority as Evidence These appeals occur daily: movie reviews, sacred texts, classes in college. Some can be taken more seriously than others. The key is to know the authoritative sources.

Authorities:

Authorities Where do you go for movie reviews? Scientific results in a discipline? News about the world? Medical results and new studies? Local news? JMU happenings? How do you know that something or someone is an actual authority?

Questioning Authority:

Questioning Authority Why should I believe this authority? How much expertise does the authority have? Was the authority in a position to have especially good access to pertinent facts? Is there good reason to believe that the authority is relatively free of distorting influences? Has the authority developed a reputation for frequently making dependable claims?

Summary of Clues for Evaluating the Evidence:

Summary of Clues for Evaluating the Evidence Intuition : Does it have any evidential support? Authority : How much expertise or training does the authority have on this particular subject? Was the authority in a position to have especially good access to pertinent facts? Is there good reason to believe that the authority is relatively free of distorting influences? Has the authority developed a reputation for frequently making dependable claims? Have we been able to rely on this authority in the past?

Summary cont.:

Summary cont. Personal Testimony What biases or interests might be affecting the person’s testimony? Does the person have any expertise to assist his or her judgment? How do the person’s value assumptions affect his or her testimony? What other personal testimony might be helpful in assessing this person’s testimony? What information has been left out in this personal testimony?

Practice Problems:

Practice Problems How good are the evidence, intuition, personal experience, testimonials, and appeals to authority? Evaluate the evidence in the following three passages.

Practice Passage 1:

Practice Passage 1 While educational costs skyrocket, students are getting less and less for their money. They are paying $20,000 a year for their education, but they are not getting the teaching they think they are paying for. Professors are putting their time and energy into research, not into teaching. Consider the following comments from students attending a major research university. Sandra W. Soph English major: “You sit in classes with 300 other students while you listen to a graduate student who can’t even speak English. Lori L. Jun. Psych major and Honors student: “I’ve been in college over three years, and I still haven’t had any one-to-one contact with a professor.” John M., 1 st year philosophy major: “It’s impossible to find professors when you need them. One professor of mine was only on campus one day a week.”

Practice Passage 2:

Practice Passage 2 Are silicone breast implants dangerous? It looks as if women who have had such surgery can again feel safe. In a recent interview, Dr. Sean McNamara, a nationally known West Coast plastic surgeon, stated that implants are perfectly safe. He reports that in 10 years of performing silicone-gel implants, he has noted no serious problems resulting from the implants. Furthermore, the Southwestern Association of Plastic Surgery has declared in a recent publication that implants do not trigger autoimmune disorders, despite the claims of some physicians.

Practice Passage 3:

Practice Passage 3 At some point in most young people’s lives the idea of being a lawyer comes to mind. And of those people, most of them go to college with this idea in mind. For some reason this country is shoulder-deep in future lawyers, many of whom cannot find work. Dr. Sharpe, professor of law, says, “My law classes are absolutely full of students. Every desk is full.” Time magazine reports there are three times as many law students as there are lawyers in the country. In addition, nearly 60% of law students will not find jobs within their major. Why is there such an attraction for this profession? It is mostly money. A Harvard survey of a randomly sampled group of first-year law students says that nearly 70% of people polled said that the high salary was the main attraction. The truth of the matter, however, is that most lawyers do not make much money at all. Myron Nickle, a lawyer for 15 years, says “I have never made more than $45,000 a year. This notion of being a high-powered lawyer in New York is totally glamorized in TV and in the movies.”

More Evidence: Personal Observation:

More Evidence: Personal Observation Eyewitness testimony is often valued in a court case. Is it good evidence? What could make it bad? Examples: Umpire calls it a strike. Batter was sure it was a ball. Memories fade over time as well. http://viscog.beckman.uiuc.edu/grafs/demos/15.html

Research Studies as Evidence:

Research Studies as Evidence Professional scientific research may be seen as the most reliable form of evidence. What distinguishes it? Results are publicly verifiable. Conditions are controlled. Language is precise.

Evaluating Research Findings:

Evaluating Research Findings Research can be done poorly. Research can be contradictory. Research findings can only support a conclusion, not prove it. They must be interpreted. Researchers are human. Results can be distorted in the interpretation and explanation.

Evaluating Research Findings:

Evaluating Research Findings 6. Research “facts” change over time. -Left-handed people die at a younger age than right-handed people. -Fiber helps prevent colon cancer. -Women under 50 benefit from mammograms. 7. Research can be too artificial to be applicable to the “real world.”

Evaluating Research Studies:

Evaluating Research Studies What is the quality of the source of the report? Does the report detail any special strengths of the research? Has the study been replicated? How selective has the communicator been in choosing studies? Is there any evidence of strong-sense critical thinking? Is there any reason for someone to have distorted the research? Are conditions in the research artificial or distorted? How far can we generalize, given the research sample? Are there any biases or distortions in the survey ….

Generalizing from Research:

Generalizing from Research People often generalize from their research or the research of others and that works to a certain extent. How much we can generalize from the research depends on the sample on which the research was done.

Evaluating the Research Sample:

Evaluating the Research Sample How large was the sample? Tension between cost in time and money and inclusiveness. How broad was the sample? It should be as broad as the group the researcher wants to draw conclusions about. How random is the sample? Did the subjects volunteer? Were they truly selected at random?

Overgeneralization:

Overgeneralization “Verbal abuse by professors is rampant on our campuses. A recent survey of 300 females at Brightsville College found that over 20% of them reported they had been verbally abused by at least one professor.” Is the first statement valid?

Biased Surveys and Questionnaires:

Biased Surveys and Questionnaires How honestly were the questions answered? Were the questions ambiguous in their wording? Were the questions or the surveyor biased in any way? A U.S. congressman sent a questionnaire to his constituents and learned that 92% were against government-supported child-care centers. The question asked was “Do you believe the federal government should provide child-care centers to assist parents in rearing their children?”

Biased Surveys cont.:

Biased Surveys cont. Another question: “Do you think that a person with a homosexual disorder should be permitted to teach your innocent children?” How long was the survey? People get tired of the questions and just want to finish as quickly as possible.

Example:

Example Parents who try to keep their children from getting fat may wind up producing kids who don’t know how to stop eating when they’ve had enough, a new study suggests. The study of 77 children ages 3 to 5 found that those with the most body fat had the most “controlling” mothers when it came to the amount of food eaten. “The more control the mother reported using over her child’s eating, the less self-regulation the child displayed.” Johnson and co-author Leann L. Birch said in the Nov issue of Pediatrics . The study was done at a preschool at the U of I at CU. The study found children whose mothers allowed them to be most spontaneous about food, eat when they were hungry, and not necessarily finish all the food given to them showed a natural instinct for regulating their own calories, the researchers said. “These internal cues, when interrupted, may well lead to overeating in later childhood, which could contribute to the child being overweight” said a pediatric nutritionist at Stanford University Medical Center.

Example Questions and Problems:

Example Questions and Problems Small sample Limited geographical area What kinds of questions should be asked about the research? How were the students selected? How was the degree of “controllingness” determined?

Case Examples as Evidence:

Case Examples as Evidence Using a single person or example to illustrate a broader point is a case example. President’s State of the Union message usually features him asking people to stand who symbolize something he is trying to illustrate. Ask yourself: Is the example typical? Are there powerful counter examples? Are there biases in how the sample is used?

Example:

Example The British welfare system is designed to get people off of public assistance and back to work. It is very successful. One single mother who was on welfare now is worth about $1 billion. True story. Who was it? J.K. Rowling, the author of the Harry Potter series.

Analogies as Evidence:

Analogies as Evidence Examples Education cannot prepare men and women for marriage. Trying to educate them for marriage is like trying to teach them to swim without allowing them to go into the water. It cannot be done. Who is responsible for all this unethical behavior in the present administration? It must be the president. After all a fish rots from the head down. You wouldn’t want to ingest a spoonful of arsenic into your system daily. I do not understand why you keep smoking. They both can kill you.

Analogies cont.:

Analogies cont. The previous examples were all analogies. Communicators, when confronted with unfamiliar things, often resort to analogies to get their point across. They reason that if two things are similar in one way, they are similar in other ways. Is that true?

Analogies cont. :

Analogies cont. Analogies can be both stimulating and deceptive. Scientists often reason by analogy: mice-human connection in medicine atomic-scale physics black holes

Evaluating Analogies:

Evaluating Analogies How do we evaluate analogies? Two factors to consider: The number of ways the two things being compared are similar and different. The relevance of the similarities and the differences. Relevant similarities and differences directly relate to the underlying principle illustrated by the analogy.

Example:

Example I do not send my son outside when he is sick with the flu or measles. Why should parents want to send their youngsters with AIDS to school? Do these children feel like running, jumping, and playing when they are ill? You do not let your child go to school with the measles, so keep him at home if he has AIDS. After all, he is sick.

How to Generate Analogies:

How to Generate Analogies Identify some important features of what you are studying. Try to identify other situations with which you are familiar that have some similar features. Give free rein to your imagination. Brainstorm. Try to imagine diverse situations. Try to determine whether the familiar situation can provide you with some insights about the unfamiliar situation.

Problems with the first three analogy examples:

Problems with the first three analogy examples 1. Swimming is a motor skill unlike marriage which depends more on social and emotional skills. 2. The parts of a political administration are much more independent than those of a living organism. 3. For arsenic, death is immediate and certain and gives no pleasure. Smoking might or might not lead to death and many people enjoy doing it.

How Good is the Evidence?:

How Good is the Evidence? To what extent are adopted children more vulnerable to emotional and academic problems than their nonadopted peers? To answer this question, psychological and academic adjustments were evaluated in a sample of 130 adopted and 130 nonadopted children ranging in age from 6 through 11 years. Mothers and teachers rated the child’s adjustment. Adoptive families were recruited from the New Jersey, Eastern Pennsylvania, and New York City areas through adoption support groups, adoptions agencies, newspaper advertisements, and word of mouth. Nonadoptive families were recruited from five central and northern New Jersey school systems and through newspaper advertisements. Adopted children were rated higher in psychological and school-related behavior problems and lower in social competence and school achievement than were nonadopted children. The results support the position that the risk of developing emotional and school-related problems is greater for adopted children.

How Good is the Evidence? 2:

How Good is the Evidence? 2 We need a system of mandatory, consistent sentences for criminals. Let’s assign numbers to each criminal act based upon its severity, then assign penalties accordingly. That is the only fair way to ensure that we can get judges to dispense penalties in a just fashion. To assign a numerical value to a particular crime is not unlike equating a touchdown to six points or a field goal to three points.

How Good is the Evidence? 3:

How Good is the Evidence? 3 Yes, one of the great American freedoms is our right to criticize our politicians. But we need to draw the line when freedom of speech harms our efforts to win the war against terrorists. Justice Holmes has said that yelling “Fire!” in a crowded theater creates a clear and present danger and is not protected speech. Clearly saying things that might harm the war effort creates a clear and present danger. Hasn’t Holmes suggested a clear place to draw the line? Those who argue against prohibiting such speech are in the minority. In the spring of 2002, 100 people were surveyed at a large mall in Houston, Texas, and were asked whether they would support efforts to restrict unpatriotic anti-war speech that was going to harm the country’s war effort. Eighty percent of this sample answered yes to this question.

10. Rival Causes:

10. Rival Causes Causation is a very difficult thing to prove. Often two things will happen at the same time and it will seem as though one caused the other, but did it really? What else could have caused it? Different interpretations of the same events give rise to Rival Causes.

Rival Causes cont.:

Rival Causes cont. Definition: A Rival Cause is a plausible interpretation, different from one author’s interpretation, that can explain why a certain outcome occurred.

Example:

Example A researcher reported that treating headaches with relaxation exercises and biofeedback is helpful. Three fourths of 95 people with chronic tension headaches and about half of 75 migraine sufferers studied reduced the frequency and severity of their headaches after learning how to relax head, neck, and shoulder muscles and control stress and tension with biofeedback.

Example cont.:

Example cont. The biofeedback techniques could well be the reason that the headaches went away, but are there other possibilities? Perhaps they were suggestible enough that just because they expected improvement, they got it. Participants wanted to give the researchers what they wanted, so they said they felt better than they really did. Headaches could have been caused by other stressors in their lives and maybe these went away during the course of the survey.

Summary:

Summary Many kinds of events are open to explanation by rival causes, including clinical case studies, criminal trials, research studies, stock market trends, advertising statistics, sports page charts, airline crash findings, and historical events. Experts can examine the same evidence and come up with different causes to explain it. Although many explanations can “fit the facts,” some seem more plausible than others. Most communicators will provide you with only their favored causes: the critical reader must generate rival causes. Generating rival causes is a creative process; usually such causes will not be obvious. Even “scientific” researchers frequently fail to acknowledge important rival causes for their findings. Finally, the certainty of a particular causal claim is inversely related to the number of plausible rival causes.

Relationship Hypotheses:

Relationship Hypotheses A recent study reported that “hostility hurts women’s health.” The researchers studied 102 women over a 31 year period and found that women high in hostility at ages 21, 27, and 43 had more sickness (everything from colds to serious illness) at 52 than women low in hostility. The researchers hypothesize that anger may release stress hormones or impair immunity.

Five Possible Explanations:

Five Possible Explanations X is a cause of Y. (Hostility does impair women’s health.) Y is a cause of X. (Being in poor health can make women hostile.) X and Y are associated because of a third factor. (Both hostility and poor health are caused by poor-health-related behaviors or by stressful life events.) X and Y influence each other (Maybe being hostile weakens the immune system, making one more tired and apt to be more hostile.) 5. X and Y also might not be related at all. They might seem to be related, but it is only coincidence.

“The” Cause or A Cause:

“The” Cause or A Cause Few things in life have only one cause. Only the most controlled scientific research can limit a process to only one cause. Investigations into human behavior almost always point out multiple causes. A common fallacy is Causal Oversimplification: Explaining an event with too few causes or too much emphasis on one cause in particular.

Rival Causes for Differences Between Groups:

Rival Causes for Differences Between Groups In a recent study, Teacher A’s teaching method for a psychology course was judged superior to that of Teacher B for that same course because Teacher A’s class performed much better, on the average, than Teacher B’s class on the same standardized, final, comprehensive multiple choice test. Agree or disagree? Rival Causes?

“After this” or “Because of this”:

“After this” or “Because of this” Just because something happens after another in time that does not mean that the first event caused the other. Leads to “Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc” fallacy (After this, therefore because of this.)

Clues for Explaining an Event:

Clues for Explaining an Event Is there any evidence that the explanation has been critically examined? Is it likely that social, political, or psychological forces may bias the hypothesis? What rival causes have not been considered? How credible is the author’s hypothesis compared to rival causes? Is the hypothesis thorough in accounting for many puzzling aspects of the events in question? How consistent is the hypothesis with all the available, valuable, relevant evidence? Is the Post Hoc fallacy the primary reasoning being used to link the events?

Practice Passage 1:

Practice Passage 1 A little bit of light may beat the winter blues. Researchers studied nine patients who suffered from winter depression, which is caused when the days get shorter. The patients were exposed to bright fluorescent light upon awakening and in the late afternoon, for three hours at a time. Within a week, seven of the patients had recovered from their depression completely, and the other two showed a modest improvement. The light treatment works because it tricks the body into thinking that it’s summer.

Practice Passage 2:

Practice Passage 2 According to a recent study, one of the major causes of delinquent behavior during teenage years is low self-esteem in adolescents. Researchers studied over 500 children from the Nashville, Tennessee Adolescent Potential study, which has been examining the causes of delinquent behavior. The adolescents in the study were interviewed while in the ninth grade. They completed the McRoberts Self-Esteem test, and then were asked how often they participated in various kinds of crimes. The researchers found that the worse the kids felt about themselves, the more likely they were to engage in delinquent acts. Also, the researchers found that the children whose self-esteem scores increased over the next two years also tended to show a decrease in delinquent behavior. Such research shows the need for teachers to attend to an adolescents’ self-esteem if they are to reduce the amount of juvenile crime.

Lies, Damned Lies, and Statistics:

Lies, Damned Lies, and Statistics Statistics are often used to support an argument. Why are they so persuasive? They sound precise: 76.4% sounds better than “lots.” They can mask the underlying problems with the study. Harder to think about where the data came from when just the numerical outcomes are emphasized in the study. Mistakes can be swept under the rug.

Examples of Statistics:

Examples of Statistics Americans are better off than ever; the average salary of an American worker is now $35,000. The average pollution of air by factories is now well below the dangerous level. What do they mean by average? What can we conclude from the statements above?

Example:

Example Consider the following set of numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 7, 10, 100, 1000 Calculate the Average: Mean: (Add them and divide by the number in the sample: 103.0909) Median: (Find the one in the middle) 3 Mode: (One that occurs the most often) 3

Range and Distribution:

Range and Distribution It is also often important to know the highest and lowest values and how often the various values occurred. Consider these two sets of numbers: 0, 20, 40 19, 20, 21 They have the same mean and median values, but the numbers are very different. Other statistical analyses are possible.

Conclusions vs Proof:

Conclusions vs Proof A car dealer raved that a particular car was a big success because only 5 out of 100 buyers who bought the car had complained to the dealership about its performance. “When 95% of the buyers are pleased,” the salesman was heard to say, “then that’s a darn good car.” What is wrong with his reasoning? Anything wrong with the statistics?

Another example:

Another example A clinical psychologist surveyed distinguished psychologists around the country. Of the 90 who replied to the survey, 24% said they knew of instances in which therapists abused minor patients. What can we conclude from this? One group concluded the following: Almost one fourth of psychotherapists sexually abused patients who were minors.

Is all the Info available?:

Is all the Info available? A crime wave has hit our city. Homicides have increased by 67% in the last year. Boxing is less dangerous than other contact sports. A survey of sports-related deaths in New York City over a 30-year period revealed that baseball, with 43 deaths, led both football (22) and boxing (21) in terms of mortality.

Relevant Comparisons:

Relevant Comparisons Fizz aspirin works 50% faster. Funding for AIDS research is more than adequate. Last year the government spent over $1.2 billion on AIDS research. College degrees pay off. A recent survey found that workers with a bachelor’s degree were earning an average of $35,000 per year in the spring of 2000.

Risk Statistics:

Risk Statistics Treatment X will reduce the likelihood of a heart attack by 20 %. Treatment Y will reduce the risk by 1 %. With treatment Z, 96% of men are free of heart attacks for 5 years, compared to 95% of those who go untreated. Which would you choose?

Risk cont.:

Risk cont. All three refer to the same size effect. This is the relative risk reduction. Changing from 5 of 100 to 4 of 100, means the risk changes from 5% to 4% or a 20% drop. In absolute terms, the change from 5 to 4 is a 1% drop. The change in positive terms is from 95% to 96%.

Clues for Assessing Statistics:

Clues for Assessing Statistics Try to find out as much as you can about how the statistics were obtained. Be curious about the type of average being described. Be alert to users of statistics concluding one thing, but proving another. Form your own conclusion from the statistics. If it doesn’t match the author’s then something is probably wrong. Determine what information is missing. Be especially alert for misleading numbers and percentages and for missing comparisons.

Practice Problem 1:

Practice Problem 1 It is time to get those tax-and-spend politicians out of office so that Congress can work to reduce the tax burden on Americans. Today, the typical American family pays 27.3% of its income in federal, state, and local taxes. In fact, in 1998, the average household paid over $50,000 in federal income taxes.

Practice Passage 2:

Practice Passage 2 “It just isn’t safe to drive any more,” my friend lamented, shaking his head as we tooled through Friday afternoon traffic on the freeway. But the fact is, driving in America is safer than it’s been in over 60 years. In 1984, we had 18.4 traffic fatalities per 100,000 population, compared to 25.8 in 1970 and 23.3 in 1950. Today you’re a lot safer on the road in your car than you are at home or at work. Twelve out of 100 Americans are laid up or need medical attention during the year because of household accidents. Five out of 100 get hurt at work. But only 2.2 per 100 are injured in automobile accidents.

Omitted Information:

Omitted Information Often, what the arguer doesn’t say is just as important, if not more so, than what is said. Arguers want to guide you to their way of thinking by presenting their side in the best possible way. That usually means leaving out the negative or oppositional aspects. You need to find those.

Reasons for Omitting Info:

Reasons for Omitting Info Limited time and money. Limited attention spans Limited knowledge on part of arguer Outright attempt to deceive Different mindset for arguer and listener.

What is Significant Omitted Info?:

What is Significant Omitted Info? Significant omitted information is information that would affect whether you should be influenced by a speaker’s or writer’s arguments, that is, information that shapes the reasoning .

Example:

Example A well-known mouthwash commercial boasts that the mouthwash has new powerful ingredients that kill 90% of the bacteria that cause bad breath. What questions should you ask before deciding to buy that mouthwash? Write them down in your groups.

Answers:

Answers What % of the bacteria do other mouthwashes kill? What % of bacteria is killed by brushing your teeth or rinsing with water? Are there any negative consequences for using the mouthwash? Is bad breath caused by sources other than the mouth or tongue? Would you still have bad breath with 10% of the bacteria still there? Is this mouthwash powerful enough to harm the gums? Is the mouthwash more expensive than other brands that do just as well?

Example:

Example Women in our society are paying a steep price for feminism’s push for increased equality. By delaying marriage to pursue careers, women encounter a severe “man shortage,” endangering their opportunity for marriage. For example, a recent marriage study by Harvard and Yale researchers found that a college-educated, unwed woman at 30 has a 20% likelihood of marriage, and at 35, a 5% chance. In addition, there has been a major plunge in economic status afflicting women who divorce under the new no-fault law. A study by a sociologist found that the average woman suffers a 73% drop in her living standard a year after divorce, while the average man enjoys a 40% rise. Also, women’s mental health has never been worse and is declining in direct proportion to women’s tendency to stay single or devote themselves to careers. In fact, single women now make up the great majority of psychotherapists’ practice.

Additional pieces of info:

Additional pieces of info Maybe marriage is not every woman’s desire, at least not enough to outweigh a rewarding career. Why not have both? Delayed marriage is not impossible. What do they mean by mental health? How did they get any of their stats? Other studies say the odds of getting married when women are older are not as bleak as stated here. Do living standards differ less after 5 years out of the marriage?

Using the Omitted Info idea in your own writing:

Using the Omitted Info idea in your own writing Now that you have some experience searching for the missing information, you can turn that to your advantage. When you write your own papers, think about items that you are leaving out that the reader would need to truly see your point. If you provide that information you will make a much stronger case.

Practice Problem 1:

Practice Problem 1 Students need more sleep. Their performance on papers and exams deteriorates as they get less sleep. Again and again, when honors students are asked about their sleep habits, they tell us that they get a lot of sleep. Further, we have all seen the late-night parade of students coming home late from the bars. Our counseling center published a pamphlet that documented the fact that these late-night carousers are often the very students who are eventually dismissed from campus because of poor grades. A little more sleep might have rescued them.

So Far…:

So Far… Issue/Conclusion Reasons Ambiguous Words Assumptions: Value and Descriptive Fallacies Evaluating the Evidence Rival Causes Deceptive Statistics Omitted Information Other Reasonable Conclusions

Reason /Conclusion Agreement:

Reason /Conclusion Agreement Two chapters look at the agreement between reasons and conclusions Rival Causes examined other reasons that support a conclusion Other Conclusions examines other conclusions that could come from the same reasons.

Last Chapter: Other Reasonable Conclusions:

Last Chapter: Other Reasonable Conclusions Often the reasons in an argument will support more than one conclusion. Even if the author supports one conclusion, you are free to accept a different conclusion. In constructing your own arguments, you should pay attention to this concept. If you can find other ways to interpret your data, then someone else will too. You should strengthen your argument in response before you even put it out for others to see.

Dichotomous Thinking:

Dichotomous Thinking People often present an argument as an either/or proposition. “There are only two sides to an issue.” This is seldom true in the real world. “Stay the course.” “Cut and run.” We hear them all the time today. This is a false dilemma. “Rigid dichotomous thinking limits the range of your decisions and opinions. Even worse, it overly simplifies complex situations. As a consequence, dichotomous thinkers are high-risk candidates for confusion.” from Browne and Keeley.

Possible Questions:

Possible Questions Consider the following questions Do IQ tests measure intelligence? Do tax cuts stimulate the economy? Should judges be elected? (Appointment is the other option.) Write down qualified answers to any one of the questions as “Yes, but… and “No, but …”

One set of reasons, different conclusions:

One set of reasons, different conclusions Consider the following reasons to be true: Any young person who wants alcohol badly enough can get it, regardless of his or her age. Many countries permit even little children to have a glass of wine with their meals and those countries have not been negatively affected. What conclusion could you draw from them?

If-Clauses:

If-Clauses It is often productive to begin an answer with the qualification of an If-statement. Then we can qualify our answers to reflect information or assumptions that are left out, since alternative conclusions are usually the result of an incomplete argument. If alcohol is consumed in moderation, then… If marijuana consumption is taxed heavily… If IQ tests test innate reasoning ability and not cultural knowledge, then… If judges are truly impartial, then …

Alternative Solutions as Conclusions:

Alternative Solutions as Conclusions Often an issue is phrased in a certain way, but the real problem is different. Example: “Should we outlaw the nudist beaches on the edge of town? We certainly should. Look at the traffic problems they are creating and the hundreds of cars that have been parking illegally since the beach opened.”

Liberating Effect:

Liberating Effect Often when we only think about the options provided by the arguer, our options are limited. When we think up other conclusions on our own we open a range of possibilities and do not have to accept the choices given us by the arguer. This is especially true during election years.

Practice Passage 1:

Practice Passage 1 When I bought a personal computer three months ago and began using it for educational purposes, my grades went up by an average of half a letter grade. Consumer Reports also said that some computers have been specially designed for educational purposes, a clear indication that they will improve school performance. Therefore, each student, upon entering college, should be required to buy a computer.

Practice Passage 2:

Practice Passage 2 When people are required to live together, there are bound to be numerous problems. Students all over our campus are moving out of their dormitory rooms because they have been uncomfortable in their previous living arrangements. The solution to this problem is to prevent the problems before they begin. If the Office of Residence Life would make it a practice to send out personality surveys and interest inventories before students ever set foot on campus, they could pair roommates who have something in common. The ORL is letting us all down when it permits the discomfort associated with trying to live with an incompatible roommate.

GISAT 160 Critical Thinking Lectures from Browne and Keeley

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GISAT 160 Critical Thinking:

The Jewels and the Garbage:

Critical Questions:

Sponging vs Panning for Gold:

Panning for Gold Check:

:

Handgun control:

Possible Questions:

More possible questions:

Who Cares?:

Weak-Sense Critical Thinking:

Strong-Sense Critical Thinking:

Critical Questions:

Traits of a Critical Thinker:

2. CT as Social Activity:

What are Values?:

Value Exercise:

Common Values:

Value Spectra:

Value Spectra Continued:

3. Issues and Conclusions:

Two Kinds of Issues:

Descriptive Issues or Questions:

Prescriptive Issue or Question:

Descriptive or Prescriptive?:

Finding the Issue and Conclusion:

Clues to finding the conclusion:

Finding the Conclusion cont.:

Example: Find the Indicators:

Finding the Conclusion cont.,:

Finding the Conclusions cont.,:

Finding the Conclusion cont.,:

Finding the Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Find the Issue and Conclusion:

Handgun control:

2. Finding the Reasons :

Reasons cont.:

Reasons cont. :

IDing and Organizing Reasoning:

Example:

Example: Finding the Reasons:

Recap:

3. Vague and Ambiguous Words:

Vague and Ambiguous Words and Phrases:

Ambiguity cont.:

Clues to locating Key Terms:

Checking for Ambiguity:

Examples for ambiguity checks:

Vague words:

Ambiguity Example:

Importance of Context:

Ambiguity cont.:

Ambiguity cont.:

Inadequacies of the Dictionary:

Creating a Mental Picture:

Loaded Language:

When is enough enough?:

Summary:

Example 1:

Example 2:

Answers to Sugary Cereal Exercise:

Chap 6. Value Conflicts and Assumptions:

Value Conflicts:

Value assumptions cont.:

Value Assumptions:

Finding the Assumptions:

Example:

Value assumptions cont.:

Value Assumptions:

Values and Value Assumptions:

Value Conflicts and Controversies:

Value Assumptions cont.:

Value Assumptions and Consequences:

Digging Deeper: