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Chapter 1:

Chapter 1

Four Basic Period of Computer History:

Four Basic Period of Computer History

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Pre-mechanical Age Mechanical Age Electromechanical Age Electronic Age

Pre-Mechanical Age (3000B.C. - 1450 A.D.) :

Pre-Mechanical Age (3000B.C. - 1450 A.D. )

Writing and Alphabets:

Writing and Alphabets Petroglyths (signs or simple figures carved in rock)

Petroglyths:

Petroglyths

Cave painting from Lascaux, France (15,000-10,000 B.C.):

Cave painting from Lascaux, France (15,000-10,000 B.C.)

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Ideographs (symbols to represent ideas and concept)

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Mayan Ideograph

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Cuneiform – the first true written language and the first real information system. (coo-nay-eh-form) Star – heaven or God

Cuneiform:

Cuneiform

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At around 2000 BC the Phoenicians created symbols that expressed single syllables and consonants (the first true alphabet) Greek adopted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels Romans gave the letters Latin name to create the alphabet we use today.

Papers and pens:

Papers and pens Sumerians – stylus and wet clay Egyptians – papyrus plants (2600 BC) Chinese – made paper from rags (100 AD)

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Stylus and wet clay Papyrus Plant

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Chinese

Books and Libraries (permanent storage device):

Books and Libraries (permanent storage device) Mesopotamia – religious leaders kept the earliest book Egyptians – kept scrolls Greeks – (600 BC) fold sheets of Papyrus vertically into leaves and bind them together.

First Numbering System:

First Numbering System Egyptian – Vertical lines (|)for numbers 1 – 9 - U or O – 10 - coiled rope – 100 - lotus blossom for 1000 Hindus – (100 – 200 AD) 9 digit numbering 875 AD the concept of zero was developed.

The First Calculator:

The First Calculator Abacus – was man’s first recorded adding machine. Invented in Babylonia and popularized in China.

Mechanical Age (1450 – 1840):

Mechanical Age (1450 – 1840)

First Information Explosion:

First Information Explosion Johann Guttenberg – Movable metal-type printing process in 1450.

The first general purpose computers:

The first general purpose computers John Napier – (1614) a Baron of Merchiston , Scotland invented LOGS (Logarithm). LOGS – allows multiplication and division to be reduce in addition and subtraction. 1614 – Arabian Lattice – lays out a special version of the multiplication tables on a set of four-sided wooden rods.(multiply, divide large numbers and find square and cube root)

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John Napier Napier’s Bone

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Wilhelm Shickard – 1623 - (Professor at University of Tubingen, Germany) – invented the first mechanical calculator that can work with six digits and can carries digits across columns.

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William Oughtred – (1575 – 1660) invented the slide rule .

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Blaise Pascal (1642) – invented the Pascaline . (made of clock gears and levers) that could solve mathematical problems like addition and subtraction.

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Gottfried Leibniz – (1617) invented Stepped Reckoner that could multiply 5 digit and 12 digit numbers yielding up to 16 digit numbers. Stepped Reckoner

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Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1801) developed the automatic loom (weaving loom) that was controlled by punched cards.

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Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar -1820 – developed Arithmometer (the first mass produced calculator)

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Charles Babbage – invented the difference engine (1821) and analytical engine (1832). - Father of modern computer. Difference Engine Analytical Engine

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Lady Ada Augusta Lovelace Byron – 1842 – the first computer programmer.

Electromechanical Age (18-40 1940):

Electromechanical Age (18-40 1940)

The Beginning of Telecommunications:

The Beginning of Telecommunications Voltaic Battery – first electric battery known as voltaic pile - invented by Alessandro Volta

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Telegraph Samuel F.B. Morse – conceived of his version of an Electromagnetic Telegraph (1832)

Morse Code:

Morse Code

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Telephone and Radio Alexander Graham Bell – 1879 - developed the first working telephone.

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Guglielmo Marconi – 1894 – (RADIO) discovered that electrical waves travel through space and can produce and effect far from the point at which it originated.

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George Boole – 1852 – developed the binary algebra known as Boolean Algebra

Electromechanical Computing:

Electromechanical Computing Pehr and Edward Scheutz – 1853 - completed a Tabulating Machine, capable of processing fifteen digit numbers, printing out result and rounding off to eight digits.

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Dorr Felt – 1885 – devises the comptometer , a key driven adding and subtracting calculator. Comptograph containing a built in printer Comptometer Comptograph

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Herman Hollerith – father of information processing. Punched Card – provided computer programmers with a new way to put information into their machines. He founded the Tabulating Machine Company , later became the Computer Tabulating Recording Company and International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)

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Herman Hollerith Tabulating Machine

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Otto Shweiger – 1893 – invented the first efficient four function calculator called Millionaire.

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Lee de Forest – 1906 – developed vacuum tubes This is important for it provided electrically controlled switch.

Electronic Age (1941 – present):

Electronic Age (1941 – present) Konrad Zuse – 1941 – built the first programmable computer called Z3.

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Howard Aiken – 1942 – developed Mark I the first stored program computer.

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John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry – 1942 – completed the first all electronic computer called ABC or Atanasoff -Berry Computer John Atanasoff Clifford Berry

Chapter 2:

Chapter 2

The Generations of Computers:

The Generations of Computers THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS STARTED WITH MECHANICAL AND ELEC- TROMECHANICAL DEVICES (17 TH THROUGH 19 TH CENTURY) AND HAS PROGRESSED THROUGH FOUR GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS. Mechanical Devices ONEOFTHEEARLIESTMECHANICALCALCULATINGDEVICESWASTHEPASCALINE, INVENTED IN 1642 BY THE FRENCH PHILOSOPHER AND MATHEMATICIAN BLAISE PASCAL. THE PASCALINE WAS A COMPLICATED SET OF GEARS THAT OPER- ATED SIMILARLY TO A CLOCK. IT WAS DESIGNED TO ONLY PERFORM ADDITION. UNFORTUNATELY, DUE TO MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS, PASCAL NEVER GOT THE DEVICE TO WORK PROPERLY. BLAISE PASCAL 1623 – 1662 THE PASCALINE WAS A MECHANICAL CALCULATING DEVICE INVENTED BY BLAISE PASCAL IN 1642 LATER IN THE 17TH CENTURY GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON LEIBNIZ, A FAMOUS MATHEMATICIAN, INVENTED A DEVICE THAT WAS SUPPOSED TO BE ABLE TO ADD AND SUBTRACT, AS WELL AS MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, AND CALCULATE SQUARE ROOTS. HIS DEVICE, THE STEPPED RECKONER, INCLUDED A CYLINDRICAL WHEEL CALLED THE LEIBNIZ WHEEL AND A MOVEABLE CARRIAGE THAT WAS USED TO ENTER THE NUMBER OF DIGITS IN THE MULTIPLICAND. HOWEVER, BECAUSE OF MECHANI- CALLY UNRELIABLE PARTS, THE DEVICE TENDED TO JAM AND MALFUNCTION. The Generations of Computers

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THE STEPPED RECKONER WAS ANOTHER EARLY ATTEMPT AT CREATING A MECHANICAL CALCULATING DEVICE IN1822CHARLESBABBAGEBEGANWORKONTHEDIFFERENCEENGINE,WHICH WAS INTENDED TO CALCULATE NUMBERS TO THE 20TH PLACE AND THEN PRINT THEM AT 44 DIGITS PER MINUTE. THE ORIGINAL PURPOSE OF THIS MACHINE WASTOPRODUCETABLESOFNUMBERSTHATWOULDBEUSEDBYSHIPS’NAVIGA- TORS.ATTHE TIME, NAVIGATION TABLES WEREOFTENHIGHLY INACCURATE DUETO CALCULATIONERRORSANDANUMBEROFSHIPSWEREKNOWNTOHAVEBEENLOST AT SEA BECAUSE OF THESE ERRORS. ALTHOUGH NEVER BUILT, THE IDEAS FOR THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE LED TO THE DESIGN OF BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL ENGINE. THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE, DESIGNED AROUND 1833, WAS SUPPOSED TO PERFORM A VARIETY OF CALCULATIONS BY FOLLOWING A SET OF INSTRUCTIONS, OR PROGRAM, STORED ON PUNCHED CARDS. DURING PROCESSING, THE ANALYTICAL ENGINEWASPLANNEDTOSTOREINFORMATIONINAMEMORYUNITTHATWOULD ALLOW IT TO MAKE DECISIONS AND THEN CARRY OUT INSTRUCTIONS BASED ON CHARLES BABBAGE 1792 – 1871 BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL ENGINE WAS DESIGNED AS A CALCULATING MACHINE THAT USED PUNCHED CARDS TO STORE INFORMATION BABBAGE’S CHIEF COLLABORATOR ON THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE WAS ADA BYRON,COUNTESSOFLOVELACE,THEDAUGHTEROFLORDBYRON.INTERESTEDIN MATHEMATICS, LADY BYRON WAS A SPONSOR OF THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE AND ONE OF THE FIRST PEOPLE TO REALIZE ITS POWER AND SIGNIFICANCE. SHE ALSO WROTE OF ITS ACHIEVEMENTS IN ORDER TO GAIN SUPPORT FOR IT. ADA BYRON IS OFTEN CALLED THE FIRST PROGRAMMER BECAUSE SHE WROTE A PROGRAM BASED ON THE DESIGN OF THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE. BABBAGE HAD HOPED THAT THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE WOULD BE ABLE TO GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON LEIBNIZ 1646 – 1716

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THINK. ADA BYRON, HOWEVER, SAID THAT THE ENGINE COULD NEVER “ORIGI- NATE ANYTHING,” MEANING THAT SHE DID NOT BELIEVE THAT A MACHINE, NO MATTER HOW POWERFUL, COULD THINK. TO THIS DAY HER STATEMENT ABOUT COMPUTING MACHINES REMAINS TRUE. Electro-Mechanical Devices BY THE END OF THE 19TH CENTURY, U.S. CENSUS OFFICIALS WERE CONCERNED ABOUT THE TIME IT TOOK TO TABULATE THE CONTINUOUSLY INCREASING NUMBER OF AMERICANS. THIS COUNTING WAS DONE EVERY 10 YEARS, AS REQUIRED BY THE CONSTITUTION. HOWEVER, THE CENSUS OF 1880 TOOK NINE YEARS TO COMPILE WHICH MADE THE FIGURES OUT OF DATE BY THE TIME THEY WERE PUBLISHED. IN RESPONSE TO A CONTEST SPONSORED BY THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, HERMAN HOLLERITH INVENTED A TABULATING MACHINE THAT USED ELECTRIC- ITY RATHER THAN MECHANICAL GEARS. HOLES REPRESENTING INFORMATION TO BE TABULATED WERE PUNCHED IN CARDS, WITH THE LOCATION OF EACH HOLE REPRESENTING A SPECIFIC PIECE OF INFORMATION (MALE, FEMALE, AGE, ETC.). THE CARDS WERE THEN INSERTED INTO THE MACHINE AND METAL PINS USED TO OPEN AND CLOSE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS. IF A CIRCUIT WAS CLOSED, A COUNTER WAS INCREASED BY ONE. ADA BYRON 1815 – 1852 HERMAN HOLLERITH 1860 – 1929 BASED ON THE SUCCESS OF HIS TABULATING MACHINE, HERMAN HOLLERITH STARTED THE TABULATING MACHINE COMPANY IN 1896. IN 1924, THE COMPANY WAS TAKEN OVER BY INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES (IBM).

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HERMAN HOLLERITH’S TABULATING MACHINE, INVENTED FOR THE CENSUS OF 1890, USED ELECTRICITY INSTEAD OF GEARS TO PERFORM CALCULATIONS HOLLERITH’S MACHINE WAS IMMENSELY SUCCESSFUL. THE GENERAL COUNT OF THE POPULATION, THEN 63 MILLION, TOOK ONLY SIX WEEKS TO COMPILE. ALTHOUGH THE FULL STATISTICAL ANALYSIS TOOK SEVEN YEARS, IT WAS STILL AN IMPROVEMENT OVER THE NINE YEARS IT TOOK TO COMPILE THE PREVIOUS CENSUS. IN 1944, THE MARK I WAS COMPLETED BY A TEAM FROM INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES (IBM) AND HARVARD UNIVERSITY UNDER THE LEADER- SHIP OF HOWARD AIKEN. THE MARK I USED MECHANICAL TELEPHONE RELAY SWITCHES TO STORE INFORMATION AND ACCEPTED DATA ON PUNCHED CARDS. BECAUSE IT COULD NOT MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT THE DATA IT PROCESSED, THE MARK I WAS NOT A COMPUTER BUT INSTEAD A HIGHLY SOPHISTICATED CALCULA- TOR. NEVERTHELESS, IT WAS IMPRESSIVE IN SIZE, MEASURING OVER 51 FEET IN HOWARD AIKEN 1900 – 1973 JOHN ATANASOFF 1903 – 1995 LENGTH AND WEIGHING 5 TONS. IT ALSO HAD OVER 750,000 PARTS, MANY OF THEM MOVING MECHANICAL PARTS WHICH MADE THE MARK I NOT ONLY HUGE BUT UNRELIABLE. THE MARK 1 WAS OVER 51 FEET LONG AND WEIGHED OVER 5 TONS THE FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS THE FIRST ELECTRONIC COMPUTER WAS BUILT BETWEEN 1939 AND 1942 AT IOWASTATEUNIVERSITYBYJOHNATANASOFF,AMATHANDPHYSICSPROFESSOR, ANDCLIFFORDBERRY,AGRADUATESTUDENT.THEATANASOFF-BERRYCOMPUTER (ABC) USED THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM OF 1S AND 0S THAT IS STILL USED IN COMPUTERS TODAY. IT CONTAINED HUNDREDS OF VACUUM TUBES AND STORED NUMBERS FOR CALCULATIONS BY ELECTRONICALLY BURNING HOLES IN SHEETS OF PAPER. THE OUTPUT OF CALCULATIONS WAS DISPLAYED ON AN ODOMETER TYPE OF DEVICE. CLIFFORD BERRY 1918 – 1963

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THE ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER USED THE BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM USED IN COMPUTERS TODAY THEPATENTAPPLICATIONFORTHEABCWASNOTHANDLEDPROPERLY,ANDIT WAS NOT UNTIL ALMOST 50 YEARS LATER THAT ATANASOFF RECEIVED FULL CREDIT FOR HIS INVENTION. IN 1990, HE WAS AWARDED THE PRESIDENTIAL MEDAL OF TECHNOLOGY FOR HIS PIONEERING WORK. A WORKING REPLICA OF THE ABC WAS UNVEILED AT THE SMITHSONIAN IN WASHINGTON, D.C. ON OCTOBER 9, 1997. IN JUNE 1943, JOHN MAUCHLY AND J. PRESPER ECKERT BEGAN WORK ON THE ENIAC (ELECTRONIC NUMERICAL INTEGRATION AND CALCULATOR). IT WAS ORIGINALLY A SECRET MILITARY PROJECT WHICH BEGAN DURING WORLD WAR II TO CALCULATE THE TRAJECTORY OF ARTILLERY SHELLS. BUILT AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, IT WAS NOT FINISHED UNTIL 1946, AFTER THE WAR HAD ENDED. BUT THE GREAT EFFORT PUT INTO THE ENIAC WAS NOT WASTED. IN ONE OF ITS FIRST DEMONSTRATIONS, ENIAC WAS GIVEN A PROBLEM THAT WOULD HAVE JOHN MAUCHLY 1907 – 1980 TAKEN A TEAM OF MATHEMATICIANS THREE DAYS TO SOLVE. IT SOLVED THE PROBLEM IN TWENTY SECONDS. J. PRESPER ECKERT 1919 – 1995

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COLOSSUS BUILT TWO YEARS BEFORE THE ENIAC, THE COLOSSUS WAS A SPECIAL-PURPOSE COMPUTER DESIGNED BY TOMMY FLOWERS, AN ENGINEER AT THE POST OFFICE RESEARCH STATION IN ENGLAND. THE COLOSSUS WAS DESIGNED TO BREAK CODES DURING WORLD WAR I I. ITS EFFECTIVENESS PLAYED A MAJOR ROLE IN ENDING THE WAR . THE ENIAC WAS ORIGINALLY A SECRET MILITARY PROJECT THE ENIAC WEIGHED 30 TONS AND OCCUPIED 1500 SQUARE FEET, THE SAME AREA TAKEN UP BY THE AVERAGE THREE BEDROOM HOUSE. IT CONTAINED OVER 17,000 VACUUM TUBES, WHICH CONSUMED HUGE AMOUNTS OF ELECTRIC- ITY AND PRODUCED A TREMENDOUS AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRING SPECIAL FANS TO COOL THE ROOM. THE ABC AND THE ENIAC ARE FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS BECAUSE THEY MARK THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPUTER ERA. A COMPUTER IS AN ELEC- TRONIC MACHINE THAT ACCEPTS DATA, PROCESSES IT ACCORDING TO INSTRUC- TIONS,ANDPROVIDESTHERESULTSASNEWDATA.ACOMPUTERCANALSOMAKE SIMPLE DECISIONS AND COMPARISONS. The Stored Program Computer THEABCANDENIACREQUIREDWIREPULLING,REPLUGGING,ANDSWITCH FLIPPING TO CHANGE THEIR INSTRUCTIONS. A BREAKTHROUGH IN THE ARCHITEC- TURAL DESIGN OF FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS CAME AS A RESULT OF SEPARATE PUBLICATIONSBYALANTURINGANDJOHNVONNEUMANN,BOTHMATHEMATI- CIANS WITH THE IDEA OF THE STORED PROGRAM. IN THE LATE 30S AND 40S, ALAN TURING DEVELOPED THE IDEA OF A “UNI- VERSAL MACHINE.” HE ENVISIONED A COMPUTER THAT COULD PERFORM MANY DIFFERENT TASKS BY SIMPLY CHANGING A PROGRAM RATHER THAN BY CHANG- ING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS. A PROGRAM IS A SEQUENCE OF INSTRUCTIONS WRITTEN IN A CODE THAT THE COMPUTER UNDERSTANDS. ALAN TURING 1912 – 1954 JOHN VON NEUMANN 1903 – 1957 IN 1945, JOHN VON NEUMANN PRESENTED HIS IDEA OF THE STORED PRO- GRAM CONCEPT. THE STORED PROGRAM COMPUTER WOULD STORE COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS IN A CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT). THE CPU CONSISTED OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS USED TO CONTROL ALL THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPUTER ELECTRONICALLY SO THAT IT WOULD NOT BE NECESSARY TO FLIP SWITCHES OR PULL WIRES TO CHANGE INSTRUCTIONS. TOGETHER WITH MAUCHLY AND ECKERT, VON NEUMANN DESIGNED AND BUILT THE EDVAC (ELECTRONIC DISCRETE VARIABLE AUTOMATIC COMPUTER) AND THE EDSAC (ELECTRONIC DELAY STORAGE AUTOMATIC COMPUTER). THESE COMPUTERS WERE DESIGNED TO SOLVE MANY DIFFERENT PROBLEMS BY SIMPLY ENTERING NEW INSTRUCTIONS THAT WERE STORED ON PAPER TAPE.

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FRANCIS "BETTY" HOLBERTON 1917 – 2001 THE INSTRUCTIONS WERE IN MACHINE LANGUAGE, WHICH CONSISTS OF 0S AND 1S TO REPRESENT THE STATUS OF A SWITCH (0 FOR OFF AND 1 FOR ON). THE THIRD COMPUTER TO EMPLOY THE STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT WAS THE UNIVAC (UNIVERSAL AUTOMATIC COMPUTER) BUILT BY MAUCHLY AND ECKERT. WITH THE UNIVAC CAME THE FIRST COMPUTER LANGUAGE CALLED C- 10,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYBETTYHOLBERTON.HOLBERTONALSODESIGNED THE FIRST COMPUTER KEYBOARD AND NUMERIC KEYPAD IN AN EFFORT TO MAKE THE COMPUTER MORE USER-FRIENDLY. THE FIRST UNIVAC WAS SOLD TO THE U.S. CENSUS BUREAU IN 1951. THESE FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS CONTINUED TO USE MANY VACUUM TUBES WHICH MADE THEM LARGE AND EXPENSIVE. THEY WERE SO EXPENSIVE TO PURCHASE AND RUN THAT ONLY THE LARGEST CORPORATIONS AND THE U.S. GOVERNMENT COULD AFFORD THEM. THEIR ABILITY TO PERFORM UP TO 1,000 CALCULATIONS PER SECOND, HOWEVER, MADE THEM POPULAR. Second Generation Computers IN 1947, WILLIAM SHOCKLEY, JOHN BARDEEN, AND WALTER BRITTAIN OF BELL LABORATORIES INVENTED THE TRANSISTOR. A TRANSISTOR IS A SEMICONDUC- TOR DEVICE THAT COULD REPLACE A VACUUM TUBE. TRANSISTORS WERE MUCH SMALLER THAN VACUUM TUBES, LESS EXPENSIVE, AND ALLOWED COMPUTER TO PROCESS UP TO 10,000 CALCULATIONS PER SECOND: JOHN BARDEEN, WILLIAM SHOCKLEY, AND WALTER BRITTAIN

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TRANSISTORS MADE COMPUTERS SMALLER, LESS EXPENSIVE, AND MORE RELIABLE THAN THOSE WITH VACUUM TUBES INTHEEARLY1960S,IBMINTRODUCEDTHEFIRSTMEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPUTER NAMED THE MODEL 650. IT WAS EXPENSIVE, BUT MUCH SMALLER THAN FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS AND STILL CAPABLE OF HANDLING THE FLOOD OF PAPER- WORK PRODUCED BY MANY GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AND BUSINESSES. SUCH ORGANIZATIONS PROVIDED A READY MARKET FOR THE 650, MAKING IT POPULAR IN SPITE OF ITS COST. SECONDGENERATIONCOMPUTERSALSOSAWACHANGEINTHEWAYDATAWAS STORED.PUNCHEDCARDSWEREREPLACEDBYMAGNETICTAPEANDHIGHSPEED REEL-TO-REEL TAPE MACHINES. USING MAGNETIC TAPE GAVE COMPUTERS THE ABILITY TO READ (ACCESS) AND WRITE (STORE) DATA QUICKLY AND RELIABLY. Third Generation Computers THE USE OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS) BEGAN THE THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS. IN 1961, JACK KILBY AND ROBERT NOYCE, WORKING INDEPEN- DENTLY, DEVELOPED THE IC, ALSO CALLED A CHIP. HUNDREDS OF TRANSISTORS, AS WELL AS OTHER ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND WIRING COULD BE HOUSED WITHIN A SINGLE IC, WHICH ALLOWED COMPUTERS TO PROCESS INFORMATION AT A RATE OF MILLIONS OF CALCULATIONS PER SECOND. ICS ARE CREATED FROM SILICON WAFERS WHICH ARE THEN ETCHED WITH INTRICATE CIRCUITS AND THEN COATED WITH A METALLIC OXIDE TO ALLOW THE CIRCUITS TO CONDUCT ELECTRICITY. THE SILICON WAFERS ARE HOUSED IN SPECIAL PLASTICCASESTHATHAVEMETALPINS.THEPINSALLOWTHEICSTOBEPLUGGED INTO CIRCUIT BOARDS THAT HAVE WIRING PRINTED ON THEM. ROBERT NOYCE 1927 – 1990 NOYCE DEVELOPED THE INTE- GRATED CIRCUIT WHILE WORKING AT FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR. IN 1968, HE FORMED THE COMPANY THAT IS NOW INTEL CORPORATION . JACK S. KILBY 1923 – 2005 WORKING FOR TEXAS INSTRUMENTS, KILBY DEVELOPED THE FIRST I NTEGRATED CIRCUIT. HE USED THIS NEW TECHNOLOGY TO CREATE THE FIRST ELECTRONIC HANDHELD CALCULATOR.

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A TYPICAL CHIP IS ABOUT 1 CM WIDE BY 2.5 CM LONG IN 1964, THE IBM SYSTEM 360 WAS ONE OF THE FIRST COMPUTERS TO USE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND WAS SO POPULAR WITH BUSINESSES THAT IBM HAD DIFFICULTY KEEPING UP WITH THE DEMAND. COMPUTERS HAD COME DOWN IN SIZE AND PRICE TO SUCH A POINT THAT SMALLER ORGANIZATIONS SUCH AS UNIVERSITIES AND HOSPITALS COULD NOW AFFORD THEM. Fourth Generation of Computers IN 1970, MARCIAN HOFF, AN ENGINEER AT INTEL CORPORATION, INVENTED THE MICROPROCESSOR, AN ENTIRE CPU ON A SINGLE CHIP. THE REPLACEMENT OF SEVERAL LARGER COMPONENTS BY ONE MICROPROCESSOR MADE POSSIBLE THE FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS. THE SMALL MICROPROCESSOR MADE IT POSSIBLE TO BUILD A COMPUTER CALLED A MICROCOMPUTER, WHICH WAS SMALL ENOUGH TO FIT ON A DESKTOP. THEFIRSTOFTHESEWASTHEALTAIRBUILTIN1975.IN1976,STEPHENWOZNIAK AND STEVEN JOBS DESIGNED AND BUILT THE FIRST APPLE COMPUTER. THE APPLE MACINTOSH SET NEW STANDARDS FOR EASE OF COMPUTER USE WITH ITS GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE. IN 1981, IBM INTRODUCED THE IBM–PC. THE COMPUTER WAS AN INSTANT SUCCESS BECAUSE OF THE AVAILABILITY OF SPREAD- SHEET, ACCOUNTING, AND WORD PROCESSOR SOFTWARE. DESKTOP COMPUTERS ARE REFERRED TO AS EITHER PCS OR MACS. ADVANCESINTECHNOLOGYMADEPERSONALCOMPUTERSINEXPENSIVEAND THEREFORE AVAILABLE TO MANY PEOPLE. BECAUSE OF THESE ADVANCES ALMOST ANYONE COULD OWN A MACHINE THAT HAD MORE COMPUTING POWER AND WAS FASTER AND MORE RELIABLE THAN EITHER THE ENIAC OR UNIVAC. AS A COMPARISON, IF THE COST OF A SPORTS CAR HAD DROPPED AS QUICKLY AS THAT OF A COMPUTER, A NEW PORSCHE WOULD NOW COST ABOUT ONE DOLLAR. FIFTH-GENERATIONOFCOMPUTERSARESTILLINDEVELOPMENTANDAREBASED ON ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE. STEVE JOBS 1955 – MARCIAN HOFF 1937 – STEPHEN WOZNIAK 1950 –

Chapter 3:

Chapter 3

Classes of computers :

Classes of computers Microcomputers (Personal computers ) Minicomputers (Midrange computers) Mainframe computers Supercomputer

Microcomputers (Personal computers) :

Microcomputers (Personal computers) Microcomputers are the most common type of computers in existence today, whether in a workplace, at school or on the desk at home. The term “microcomputer” was introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. The term “microcomputer” itself is now practically an anachronism. These computers include: Desktop computers – A case and a display, put under and on a desk. In-car computers (“carputers”) – Built into a car, for entertainment, navigation, etc.

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A separate class is that of mobile devices: Laptops, notebook computers and Palmtop computers – Portable and all in one case. Varying sizes, but other than smartbooks expected to be “full” computers without limitations. Tablet PC – Like laptops, but with a touch-screen, sometimes entirely replacing the physical keyboard. Smartphones, smartbooks and PDAs (personal digital assistants) – Small handheld computers with limited hardware. Programmable calculator – Like small handhelds, but specialised on mathematical work. Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for entertainment purposes (computer games). Handheld game consoles – The same as game consoles, but small and portable .

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Minicomputers (Midrange computers) A minicomputer (colloquially, mini ) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the largest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). The contemporary term for this class of system is midrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER andItanium -based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard . Mainframe computers The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large, institutional computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe computers are used in large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations.

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Supercomputer A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and complex scientific computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per second or FLOPS. Example of floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, Supercomputers are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing. Transaction processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server computers or mainframes.

Classes by function :

Classes by function Servers Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service. For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers" manage a large collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services for other computers(It's nothing but a group of micro computers sharing memory for one single user program likely database). Workstations Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer. Information appliances Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific user-friendly function —such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is most commonly applied tomobile devices, though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class. Embedded computers Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded computers; however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one. The central processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal computer.

The Four Basic Functions of a Computer:

The Four Basic Functions of a Computer Input Processing Output Storage

Input device :

Input device In computing, an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or otherinformation appliance. Input and output devices make up the hardware interface between a computer and a scanner or 6DOF controller. Many input devices can be classified according to: modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.) the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous) the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications) Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can further be classified according to: Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincides with the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback or the cursor appears.Touchscreens and light pens involve direct input. Examples involving indirect input include the mouse and trackball. Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative (e.g. with a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned) Direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be either absolute or relative. For example, digitizing graphics tablets that do not have an embedded screen involve indirect input and sense absolute positions and are often run in an absolute input mode, but they may also be set up to simulate a relative input mode where the stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned.

Keyboards :

Keyboards A 'keyboard' is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons. Each button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a particular function of the computer. Traditional keyboards use spring-based buttons, though newer variations employ virtual keys, or even projected keyboards. Examples of types of keyboards include Mouse A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mice and touch screens, this is usually achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the cursor, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's GUI.

Composite devices :

Composite devices Input devices, such as buttons and joysticks, can be combined on a single physical device that could be thought of as a composite device. Many gamingdevices have controllers like this. Technically mice are composite devices, as they both track movement and provide buttons for clicking, but composite devices are generally considered to have more than two different forms of input. Game controller Gamepad (or joypad ) Paddle (game controller) Wii Remote

Imaging and Video Input devices:

Imaging and Video Input devices Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats depending on the user's requirement . digital camera Webcam Image scanner Fingerprint scanner Barcode reader 3D scanner Laser rangefinder Medical Imaging Computed tomography Magnetic resonance imaging Positron emission tomography Medical ultrasonography

Audio input devices :

Audio input devices In the fashion of video devices, audio devices are used to either capture or create sound. In some cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound. Microphone MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument

Output device:

Output device An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world. In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent by the system to the outside. Examples of output devices: Speakers Headphones Screen (Monitor) Printer

Storage devices:

Storage devices

Slide 75:

A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs. A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable) recording medium or a permanent component to store and retrieve information. Electronic data storage is storage which requires electrical power to store and retrieve that data. Most storage devices that do not require vision and a brain to read data fall into this category. Electromagnetic data may be stored in either an analog or digital format on a variety of media. This type of data is considered to be electronically encoded data, whether or not it is electronically stored in a semiconductor device, for it is certain that a semiconductor device was used to record it on its medium. Most electronically processed data storage media (including some forms of computer data storage) are considered permanent (non-volatile) storage, that is, the data will remain stored when power is removed from the device. In contrast, most electronically stored information within most types of semiconductor (computer chips) microcircuits are volatile memory, for it vanishes if power is removed. With the exception of barcodes and OCR data, electronic data storage is easier to revise and may be more cost effective than alternative methods due to smaller physical space requirements and the ease of replacing (rewriting) data on the same medium. However, the durability of methods such as printed data is still superior to that of most electronic storage media. The durability limitations may be overcome with the ease of duplicating (backing-up) electronic data.