REASON

REASON: 

REASON Sources: Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition Richard E. Mayer Problem-Solving Therapy Thomas D’Zurillaa & Arthur Nezu

TYPES OF THINKING: 

TYPES OF THINKING Divergent/Alternate : Thinking which moves outward from a problem in many directions Convergent: Thinking which moves inward to find a single answer Creative: Generating new ideas Critical: Evaluating/testing ideas

TYPES OF THINKING cont.: 

TYPES OF THINKING cont. Causal: Understanding cause and effect Consequential: Anticipating/predicting effects Means-ends Perspective taking

POLYA 4 STEPS TO PROBLEM SOLVING: 

POLYA 4 STEPS TO PROBLEM SOLVING Understanding the problem: Identify problem and gather information. What are the givens? What is the goal? What are the data/conditions? Devising a plan : Trial and error, and/or insight to find possible solutions Carry out plan : Test solutions Looking back : Assessing effectiveness of solution. See how everything fits together.

TYPOLOGY OF PROBLEMS: 

TYPOLOGY OF PROBLEMS Problems of Transformation: Finding a sequence of operations to reach a goal. Searching through a set of possibilities Problems of Arrangement : Elements arranged to solve a problem. Narrowed set of possibilities Problems of Induction : Collect data, then find rules or pattern that is consistent with the information Finding general principle or structure Problems of Deduction: Determining if an argument necessarily prove its conclusion

3 Aids to Understanding Problems: 

3 Aids to Understanding Problems Concretizing : Converting abstract into physical form (e.g. writing, drawing the problem) Discovering: Being aware of learning process. Relate areas of knowledge Blockbusting: Reframing the problem; a new perspective can illuminate a solution to a seemingly unsolvable problem

HYPOTHESIS TESTING: 

HYPOTHESIS TESTING Simultaneous Scanning: Begin with all possible hypotheses, then eliminate Successive Scanning: Being with one hypothesis, keep until disconfirmed, replace with another

4 STRATEGIES FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING: 

4 STRATEGIES FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING Confirmation: Finding information which supports hypothesis Disconfirmation: Finding information which disconfirms hypothesis Positive Counter-Factual: Confirm alternate hypotheses Negative Counter-Factual: Disconfirm alternate hypotheses

SUCCESSFUL VS. UNSUCCESSFUL REASONERS (Farris, Revlon): 

SUCCESSFUL VS. UNSUCCESSFUL REASONERS (Farris, Revlon) Those who discovered the correct rule to a problem received 3 times more negative feedback, required almost 50% more trials than unsuccessful reasoners Successful reasoners : Twice as likely to use counter-factual reasoning (test alternate hypotheses) Unsuccessful: 81% used confirmation compared to 52% of successful reasoners .

INSUFFICIENT INDUCTIVE REASONING: 

INSUFFICIENT INDUCTIVE REASONING Confirmation bias: Accepts information which confirms a position while ignoring or dismissing information which may disconfirm it Availability heuristic Similarity heuristic Base rate fallacy Conjunction fallacy

REASONING & IQ: 

REASONING & IQ Divergent thought: Those with low IQ typically are not capable of much divergent thought. Those with high IQ did not necessarily have high divergent thought; Low correlation with IQ Those with damage to frontal lobes scored the same on IQ tests but not on problem-solving tasks; Rational abilities (risk assessment, creativity, judgment, etc.)

PROBLEM ORIENTATION: 

PROBLEM ORIENTATION Positive problem orientation: Positive emotions and approaches, maximize problem solving effort, persistent, and have a tolerance for frustration and uncertainty Negative problem orientation: Negative emotions, avoidance of problems, denial, increased stress, reduced effort and persistence, low tolerance for frustration and uncertainty

NEGATIVE/DYSFUNCTIONAL PROBLEM ORIENTATION SIGNS: 

NEGATIVE/DYSFUNCTIONAL PROBLEM ORIENTATION SIGNS Blames self for problem; existence of problems means something is wrong with them Perceive problems as threats rather than challenges Low expectations of solving problems effectively If the problem is not solved quickly, this is interpreted as evidence that one is inadequate, stupid, weak, etc. Linked to hopelessness and suicide

REASON & STRESS: 

REASON & STRESS Ability to reason and problem solve reduces stress, anxiety High emotional stress results in cognitive deficiencies—narrowed range of perceived solutions, impaired long-term thinking, insufficient information gathering, erroneous evaluations

2 MALADAPTIVE DECISION MAKING PATTERNS: 

2 MALADAPTIVE DECISION MAKING PATTERNS Janis & Mann Defensive avoidance: Procrastination, attempts to shift responsibility away from the self Hypervigilance : Panic-like state, rapidly shifting back and forth between alternative solutions, impulsively, hasty conclusions, seek immediate relief

PROBLEM VS. EMOTION FOCUSED: 

PROBLEM VS. EMOTION FOCUSED Lazarus Problem-focused coping: changing the situation for the better. Effective in managing stress Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotions. Used often when conditions are seen as unchangeable or uncontrollable

COMMON DISTORTIONS TO PROBLEM SOLVING: 

COMMON DISTORTIONS TO PROBLEM SOLVING Arbitrary inference: Coming to a conclusion from insufficient information or ruling out alternatives Selective abstraction : Picking and choosing information Overgeneralization Personalization: Egocentric thinking Dichotomous thinking: Black or white thinking