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Chapter 14 Altruism and Moral Development : 

Chapter 14 Altruism and Moral Development

Altruistic?: 

Altruistic? John, a millionaire, makes a $50,000 contribution to AIDS research Steve gives a pint of blood to a blood bank and receives $10 for his donation Susie, an 8-year old, freely chooses to spend Halloween night trick-or-treating for the March of Dimes Sam, a professional football player, donates his time to tape a commercial for the United Way Noriko comforts a crying child who is lost in a large department store

Does true altruism exist?: 

Does true altruism exist? Desire for reward Gratitude from victim Praise from others Increase self-esteem Go to heaven Help family members (“selfish” genes) Fear of punishment Avoid going to hell Reduce own feelings of distress about other’s suffering

Why Do We Help Others?: 

Why Do We Help Others? Feeling Empathy Self-conscious (moral) emotions Thinking Prosocial values Moral reasoning

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Origins of Altruism – concern for the welfare of others and willingness to act on that concern 12 to 18 month olds offer toys to peers Toddlers can express sympathy Verbally rebuking children and physically punishing them reduces compassion Discipline based on affective explanation increases compassion

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Developmental Trends in Altruism 2-3 year olds show sympathy/compassion Rarely engage in spontaneous acts of self-sacrifice; but did during pretend play 4-6 year olds – more real helping acts, fewer during pretend play

Do Children Understand When to Help?: 

Do Children Understand When to Help? Examined behavior of 18 month olds One condition, deliberately dropped an object (don’t need help) Other condition, accidentally dropped an object (need help) Do the toddlers know the difference? Helping requires Understanding other people’s goals Have pro-social motivation

Is this Specific to Humans?: 

Is this Specific to Humans? Did similar task with chimps Chimps showed similar behavior if task was simple and goal of person was very clear

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Social-Cognitive Contributions to Altruism Children with well-developed role-taking skills are more helpful

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Empathy: An Important Affective Contributor to Altruism Empathy – person’s ability to experience the emotions of other people. Personal/self-oriented distress can lead to ignoring others in need Sympathetic empathetic arousal – concern for distressed others increases altruism

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Age Trends in the Empathy-Altruism Relationship Little relationship between empathy and altruism among preschool and young grade school children Stronger for older individuals Need to understand why others are distressed Need to suppress own distress

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF The Felt-Responsibility Hypothesis Sympathetic empathetic arousal causes one to reflect on altruistic lessons Result is assuming personal responsibility for aiding a person in distress

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Cultural and Social Influences on Altruism Cultural Influences Altruism more common in less industrialized societies – where children help more with the family Assigning chores improves altruism in Western societies

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Values: 

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Values Our behavior is shaped by our social values (i.e., our moral belief system) International study of prosocial values Individuals from each country ranked 16 values from most to least important

Prosocial Values: 

Prosocial Values U.S. Canada Israel Papua New Guinea Freedom Freedom Freedom Freedom Happiness Happiness Happiness Equality Wisdom Mature Love National Security True Friendship Self-respect Self-respect World Peace World Peace World of Beauty World of Beauty World of Beauty World of Beauty Pleasure Social Recognition Social Recognition Pleasure Nat. Security Nat. Security Comfortable Life Mature Love Salvation Salvation Salvation Sense of Accomplish.

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Values: 

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Values Many similarities across cultures, but also some differences Some values are relatively universal, whereas other values are unique to particular cultures

Social Values/Goals of College Students: 

Social Values/Goals of College Students Being very well off financially 45% 66% 75% Raising a family 50% 69% 73% Helping others in difficulty 62% 62% 68% Developing a meaningful philosophy of life 70% 48% 46% Influencing social values 26% 31% 36% 1976 1986 2001

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF: 

ALTRUISM: DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROSOCIAL SELF Who Raises Altruistic Children? Altruistic parents Parents who discipline children in ways that encourage children to accept personal responsibility for the harm they caused Urge a helpful response to the victim

Morality: 

Morality

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Morality Distinguish right from wrong Act on that distinction Experience pride in virtuous conduct; shame over acts that violate standards Internalization of standards is vital

Perspectives on Morality: 

Perspectives on Morality Doctrine of innate purity: We are inherently good Babies are moral and pure; society is corrupting Doctrine of original sin: We are inherently bad Taming of sexual and aggressive impulses is necessary for development of a moral conscience Tabula rasa: We are not inherently good or bad We learn to be a good or bad person

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR How Developmentalists Look at Morality Affective component – stressed by psychoanalytic theorists – moral affects Cognitive component – stressed by cognitive-developmental theorists – moral reasoning Behavioral component – stressed by social learning and social information-processing theorists – moral behavior

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR The Affective Component of Moral Development Freud’s Theory of Oedipal Morality Superego develops during phallic stage Identifies with same-sex parent Internalizes same-sex moral standards Girls have weaker superegos than boys

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Evaluation of Freud’s Theory Pride, shame, guilt are important for ethical conduct Internalization of standards is vital Details of theory unsupported Harsh discipline = less morality Boys not more moral than girls Underestimated when children begin expressing morality

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR The Cognitive Component of Moral Development Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Studied respect for rules and conceptions of justice The Premoral Period Preschool age – little concern for, or awareness of, rules

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Heteronomous Morality 5 to 10 years old – strong respect for rules; they cannot be altered Children comply strictly with rules and base judgements about moral issues on consequences rather than intentions

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Autonomous Morality Ages 10 or 11, rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed Rules can be violated to help others Judgements of moral issues are based on intentions as well as consequences Intent is now important in determining right and wrong

Slide30: 

Lawrence Kohlberg Born: 1927, Bronxville, NY Died: 1987, Boston, MA Education: PhD, U. of Chicago Accomplishments: Major contributor to the field of moral development and reasoning; Published major work in 1981, Essays on Moral Development.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Used dilemmas requiring choice between obeying rules or disobeying rules while serving a human need

Joe was a 14-year old boy who wanted to go to camp. His father promised him that he could go, if he earned the money for camp himself. So Joe worked diligently at his paper route and saved the $40 it would cost to go to camp. But just before camp was going to start, his father changed his mind. Some of his father’s friends had decided to go on a fishing trip, and Joe’s father was short of money. So he told Joe to give him the money that he earned from the paper route. Joe didn’t want to miss camp, and thought about refusing to give his father the money. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money or should he give it to him? Why or why not? : 

Joe was a 14-year old boy who wanted to go to camp. His father promised him that he could go, if he earned the money for camp himself. So Joe worked diligently at his paper route and saved the $40 it would cost to go to camp. But just before camp was going to start, his father changed his mind. Some of his father’s friends had decided to go on a fishing trip, and Joe’s father was short of money. So he told Joe to give him the money that he earned from the paper route. Joe didn’t want to miss camp, and thought about refusing to give his father the money. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money or should he give it to him? Why or why not?

In Europe, a lady was dying because she was very sick. There was one drug the doctors said might save her. This medicine was discovered by a man living in that same town. It cost him $200 to make it, but he charged $2,000 for just a little bit of it. The sick lady’s husband, Heinz, tried to borrow enough money to buy the drug. He went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only borrow half of what he needed. He told the man who made the drug that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell the medicine cheaper or let him pay later. But the man said “No, I made the drug and I am going to make money from it.” So Heinz broke into the store and stole the drug.Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not?: 

In Europe, a lady was dying because she was very sick. There was one drug the doctors said might save her. This medicine was discovered by a man living in that same town. It cost him $200 to make it, but he charged $2,000 for just a little bit of it. The sick lady’s husband, Heinz, tried to borrow enough money to buy the drug. He went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only borrow half of what he needed. He told the man who made the drug that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell the medicine cheaper or let him pay later. But the man said “No, I made the drug and I am going to make money from it.” So Heinz broke into the store and stole the drug. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not?

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Level 1: Preconventional Morality Stage 1: Punishment-and-Obedience Orientation Goodness or badness depends on consequences of act – bad acts are punished Stage 2: Naïve Hedonism Conform to rules to gain rewards

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Level 2: Conventional Morality Stage 3: “Good Boy” or “Good Girl” Orientation Moral behavior pleases, helps, or is approved of by others Stage 4: Social-Order-Maintaining Morality Right conforms to legal authority; rules maintain social order

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Level 3: Postconventional (or Principled) Morality Stage 5: The Social-Contract Orientation Laws should express will of majority, and further human welfare; if not, challenge them

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Stage 6: Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience Individual abstract moral guidelines that transcend laws Rare (a hypothetical construct) No longer measured

And in pictoral form…: 

And in pictoral form…

Slide39: 

Age and percentage of individuals at each Kohlberg stage Percent

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Are Kohlberg’s Stages an Invariant Sequence? Individuals do proceed through stages in order Stages are not skipped Stage 3 or 4 is highest level for most people

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Cognitive Prerequisites for Moral Growth Preconventional child reasons from an egocentric point of view Conventional reasoning requires role-taking abilities Postconventional reasoning requires formal operations All have received support

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Advanced Education More education, higher level of moral reasoning Contributes to cognitive growth Exposes students to diverse moral perspectives

Kohlberg’s Initial Basis: 

Kohlberg’s Initial Basis Initially, Kohlberg administered his test to people all over the world, being careful to include all races, to include rural as well as urban dwellers, etc. a Malaysian aboriginal village, villages in Turkey and the Yucatan, and urban populations in Mexico and the United States There was only one thing he forgot: He only administered his dilemmas to males!

Gender and Kohlberg’s scale: 

Gender and Kohlberg’s scale When Kohlberg’s instrument was administered on a large scale, it was discovered that females often scored a full stage below their male counterparts. The moral reasoning of women and girls was more likely to value looking for a solution that preserved connections. This often looked like the “good girl” orientation, Stage 4.

Gilligan’s Initial Research: 

Gilligan’s Initial Research Gilligan began with an interest in moral development She had been a teaching assistant for Erik Erikson She was particularly interested in the issue Kohlberg raised: why do some individuals recognize a higher moral law, while others simply are content to obey the rules without question?

Slide46: 

Carol Gilligan

Gilligan’s Initial Research: 

Gilligan’s Initial Research Her initial research project was directed toward draft resisters during the Vietnam war Nixon cancelled the draft just as her project was getting started She switched to study women who had made difficult moral choices about abortion Not originally concerned about gender issue

Gilligan’s Critique: 

Gilligan’s Critique In light of the differences between the scores of males and females on the Kohlberg scale, one could draw either of two conclusions: females are less morally developed than males, or something is wrong with Kohlberg’s framework.

Gilligan’s Critique: 

Gilligan’s Critique Gilligan began to look more closely at the responses she was receiving in her work She began to suspect that Kohlberg’s framework did not illuminate the responses she was encountering It was like trying to put round pegs into square holes

Differences between Men’s Moral Voices and Women’s Moral Voices: 

Differences between Men’s Moral Voices and Women’s Moral Voices Men Justice Rights Treating everyone fairly and the same Apply rules impartially to everyone Responsibility toward abstract codes of conduct Women Care Responsibility Caring about everyone’s suffering Preserve emotional connectedness Responsibility toward real individuals

Differences between Men’s and Women’s View of the Self: 

Differences between Men’s and Women’s View of the Self Men Autonomy Freedom Independence Separateness Hierarchy Rules guide interactions Roles establish places in the hierarchy Women Relatedness Interdependence Emotional connectedness Responsiveness to needs of others Web of relationships Empathy & connectedness guide interactions Roles are secondary to connections

Gilligan’s Conclusion: 

Gilligan’s Conclusion The manner in which we socialize girls & boys results in differences in the manner in which they reason about moral issues: boys more oriented to rules and girls to relationships Thus, need new theory for female morality

Gilligan’s Theory: 

Gilligan’s Theory Proposes a developmental progression in which individuals gain greater understanding of caring and responsibility First children are preoccupied with their own needs; Second, people care for others Third, caring in all human relationships ( for others and self)

Beyond Kohlberg: 

Beyond Kohlberg Gilligan believes that moral reasoning becomes qualitatively more sophisticated as individuals develop Gilligan emphasizes caring instead of justice

Stages of Women’s Moral Development: 

Stages of Women’s Moral Development Concern for individual survival Transition from selfishness to responsibility Goodness equated with self-sacrifice Transition from self-sacrifice to giving themselves permission to take care of themselves Goodness seen as caring for both self and others Inclusive, Nonviolent Condemns exploitation and hurt

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR The Role of Punishment in Establishing Moral Prohibitions Investigating Resistance to Temptation Punishment should be firm Administered immediately and consistently by a warm disciplinarian Reasons for not performing the act should be provided

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Explaining the Effects of Cognitive Rationales Reasoning can result in internal attributions (guilt, harm self-image) Punishment can lead to external attributions – avoid punishment Obey when authority figures are present, not in their absence

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Social Modeling Influences on Moral Behavior Children learn from watching others, if they know the other is resisting the temptation to violate a rule

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR Who Raises Children Who Are Morally Mature? Love withdrawal and power assertion, do not promote moral growth Induction – explaining why a behavior is wrong and how it should be changed Fostered moral emotions, reasoning, and behavior

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR: 

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: AFFECT, COGNITION, AND BEHAVIOR A Child’s-Eye View of Discipline Children and adolescents preferred induction, even to permissive nonintervention Recognized a need for occasional power assertion

Biology and Moral Development: 

Biology and Moral Development Why do people act in morally appropriate ways? The role of biology

Biology and Moral Development: 

Biology and Moral Development Damage to prefrontal cortex impairs morals Phineas Gage: Responsible and well-liked before his accident Profane, unreliable, impulsive, and inconsiderate afterward More recent studies: Despite their disruptive behavior, individuals with prefrontal damage know the moral and social rules of society (moral reasoning is normal)

Biology and Moral Development: 

Biology and Moral Development Previous research studied individuals who suffered prefrontal damage in adulthood Moral development occurs during childhood What happens to people who suffer prefrontal damage in childhood?

Biology and Moral Development: 

Biology and Moral Development Anderson et al. (1999; Nature: Neuroscience) Studied two adults who sustained damage to the prefrontal cortex before 16 months of age Both individuals were raised in stable, middle class homes by college-educated parents who devoted considerable time and resources to their children

Biology and Moral Development: 

Biology and Moral Development FINDINGS: Both individuals had a history of compulsive lying and stealing, a lack of motivation or plans for the future, and they almost never expressed empathy, guilt, or remorse In tests that measure moral reasoning, both scored at the level of a typical 10-year old (“preconventional”) Conclusion: Early damage to prefrontal cortex impairs moral reasoning, as well as moral behavior

“Moral Exemplars”[Colby & Damon, 1992]: 

“Moral Exemplars” [Colby & Damon, 1992] Women/men of diverse backgrounds were nominated as moral exemplars Nominees were theologians, philosophers, historians, social commentators, and scholars of ethics and morality

Characteristics of Moral Exemplars: 

Characteristics of Moral Exemplars Clarity of beliefs about what is right and wrong Compassion toward others Positive attitude toward life Integration of personal and moral goals and values Moral actions are not seen as self-sacrificing Ability to be inspiring and move others to moral action Sense of humility about one's own importance relative to the world at large Belief in transcendental ideals; faith in something above and beyond themselves

Ruby Bridges: 

Ruby Bridges First black child integrated into white schools in New Orleans Chosen because of high standardized test scores Three other children also selected, but parents chose not to integrate them Escorted by U.S. Marshals to school Parents of white children pulled their kids out of school Ruby was the only student in her class the first year

Ruby Bridges’ Story : 

Ruby Bridges’ Story Video: Listening to Children

Character Education in School: 

Character Education in School Columbine Elementary School raised money to build a health facility in Nepal Cotswold Elementary: Read stories with moral themes Teacher discusses the character traits of the people in the story Kids keep a “character journal” “Character assemblies” – awards given for good character Themes in character education Respect self and others Support others while exhibiting compassion Take responsibility for your actions Make a difference, take action

Should Character Education Be Taught in Schools?: 

Should Character Education Be Taught in Schools? “An important thing I learned in first grade is that schools can be a place to bring people together - kids of all races and backgrounds. That's the work I focus on now, connecting our children through their schools.” –Ruby Bridges (2000) “To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society.” – Theodore Roosevelt