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Strategies to decrease methane production in ruminants Hamzah Bhatti 07-ARID-1700 Mohsin Raza 07-ARID-1704

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Why is there a need to have strategies to control methane Naturally occurring greenhouse gases consist of water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2)), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3). Carbon dioxide, CH4 and N2O have a direct global warming affect and their concentrations in the atmosphere are the result of human activities Methane is one of the six green house gases (GHGs) identified under United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN FCCC) Kyoto Protocol which needs to be stabilized to achieve the emission targets of the industrialized world. This GHG has 21 times more global warming potential than carbon dioxide but a relatively short chemical lifetime of about 12 years compared to 120 years of CO2 (ARM 2001). As a contributor to global warming, methane is second only to carbon dioxide, and accounts for 16% of all greenhouse gas emissions globally In the US beef cattle remain the largest contributor of CH4 emissions, accounting for 71 percent in 2004. Dairy cattle accounted for 24 percent and the remaining emissions were from horses, sheep, swine and goats. Approximately 132 to 264 gallons of ruminal gas produced by fermentation are belched each day. The eructation of gases via belching is important in bloat prevention but is also the way CH4 is emitted into the atmosphere. According to Johnson and Johnson (1995), cattle can produce 250–500 l of methane per day per animal. Cattle typically lose 2–15% of their ingested energy as eructated methane . The estimated CH4 emission from enteric fermentation is 17–30% of global production.

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Thus, programmes and policies that target reductions in CH4 emissions can help mitigate the rate of climate change at a faster rate than those that target reductions in emissions of CO2 and other longer-lived greenhouse gases. Therefore, mitigating methane losses from cattle has two important benefits. Firstly, less methane means a lower concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Secondly, less methane means increased efficiency of livestock production and increased income for farmers. Enteric Fermentation Methane production in the rumen occurs as a consequence of the presence of a group of microorganisms called methanogens that reside in the reticulo-rumen and large intestine of ruminant livestock. These organisms play an important role in converting organic matter to methane. Methanogens function in a way that they reduce carbon dioxide to methane, preventing the accumulation of hydrogen. Excessive quantities of hydrogen ions or protons, when allowed to accumulate in the rumen environment, result in a decline in pH, and subsequent inhibition of many organisms that are essential for fiber digestion

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Rumen Manipulation Strategies Improving Rumen Fermentation Efficiency Type of concentrate used Addition of fats Feed Additives/ Ionophores Dietary Manipulation/Feed Intake Defauntaion Dicarboxylic acids Inhibitors

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Type Of Concentrate: Proportion of diet….negatively correlated… fiber based reduced and concentrate based….. Acetate:propionate ratio……… decrease in pH…… problems Cell wall carbohydrates…..more methane…… Starch diets… propionate production… decrease methane. Roughage diets ( fibre )…. Acetate production…. Increase methane Defaunation : “The elimination of protozoa from the rumen is termed defaunation .” Defaunation results in reduced methane production due to (1) reduced fiber digestion (Machmu¨ller et al. 2003), (2) reduced methanogen population associated with protozoa ( Machmu¨ller et al. 2000), (3) reduced hydrogen transfer (Finlay and Fenchel 1993), and (4) increased partial pressure of oxygen on the rumen ( Eckard 2001).

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Improving Rumen fermentation Efficiency: The production of methane is high in ruminants . To control this many aspects of improving the rumen efficiency have been sought and a few are explained below: Feed Additives: Feed additives are used to decrease the rumen methanogenesis Ionophores: “Ionophores are polyether antibiotics produced by soil microorganisms that modulate the movement of cations such as sodium, potassium and calcium across cell membranes.” Monensin and lasolasid are two ionophores which have been extensively used to manipulate ruminal fermentation. Ionophores affect methane production in four ways: first, they increase feed conversion efficiency (Goodrich et al. 1984); second, they selectively reduce acetate production ( Slyter 1979); third, they inhibit the release of H2 from formate (Van Nevel and Demeyer 1979); fourth, they depress ciliate protozoa population. Improve dry matter intake efficiency and suppress acetate production, which results in reducing the amount of hydrogen released.

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Dietary Fats: Dietary fats have the potential to reduce CH4 up to 37%. This occurs through biohydration of unsaturated fatty acids, enhanced propionic acid production and protozoal inhibition. The effects are variable and lipid toxicity to the rumen microbes can be a problem. This strategy can affect milk components negatively and result in reduced income for the producer. Propionate Precursors: Formation of Hydrogen…. Hydrogen acceptors…. Production of propionate

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Dicarboxylic acids: “ Dicarboxylic organic acids (malate, fumarate) are potential precursors of propionate which stimulate H2 utilization for reduction of fumarate to succinate during propionate synthesis at the expense of enteric methane.” Addition of fumarate……increases propionate production….decreases methane The following constraints are associated with the use of dicarboxylic acids. First, they are expensive chemicals. Second, they are not suitable for grazing animals as they have to be fed daily. Inhibitors: Targeted inhibotors … negative effect on methanogenesis BES… Harmful to liver.. … future options

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Step 1. Digestion carbohydrates monosaccharides (glucose) Step 2. Production of volatile fatty acids by bacteria glucose + 2 water 2 acetate+2CO 2 +4 hydrogen glucose 2 butyrate + 2 CO 2 + 2 hydrogen glucose + 2 hydrogen 2 propionate + 2 water Step 3. Production of CH4 by methanogenic bacteria carbon dioxide + 4 hydrogen methane + 2 water

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Nutritional & Management Strategies Forage type and quality Level of Intake Feeding frequency Forage Species and maturity Forage Preservation

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Forage Type and Quality: Forage quality has a significant impact on methane emission. Emission is influenced by the dry matter availability. It is highest when pasture quality and availability is low. So the use of more digestible forage will result in a reduction of methane production. Also the methane emission per unit of feed intake can be reduced by the use of grass cultivars which are used to increase the animals performance. So in general high quality forages are used to decrease the methane production. Legumes have a high DMI and they tend to produce more solids so these can be used as an option as it reduces the methane emission per unit of meat or milk production. Level Of Intake: An increase in the feeding level causes lower methane losses as %of GEI as it is caused by the rapid passage of feed out of the rumen. As there is an increased passage rate, the rate at which microbes can attack is decreased which then in turn reduces the extent of ruminal fermentation .

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Feeding Frequency: Lowering the feed frequency causes an increase in the propionate production which reduces the acetic acid prdocuction in turn leading to a decrease in the methane produced. This effect is associated with the lowering of methanogens as a result of high fluctuations in ruminal pH, since low meal frequencies increase diurnal fluctuations in ruminal pH that can be inhibitory to methanogens But as a constraint it is not profitable to farmers as an increase in the feeding frequency will result in lesser fluctuations in the ruminal pH which will ensure efficient digestion and milk production. So lowering the feeding frequency will not be beneficial to them. Forage Specie and Maturity: According to a research , McCaughey in his results showed that a specie in a pasture effected the methane production. This reduction in CH 4 emissions may be attributed to a reduction in the proportion of structural carbohydrates. Methane production in ruminants tends to increase with the maturity of the forage fed.

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Processing Strategies: Grinding or pelleting of forages to improve the utilization by ruminants has been shown to decrease CH4 losses per unit of feed intake by 20-40% when fed at high intakes (Johnson et al. 1996) The lowered fiber digestibility, decreased ruminally available organic matter and faster rate of passage associated with ground or pelleted forages can explain the decline in CH 4 production. However, fine grinding of forages has not proved to be economical to dairy producers because of increased incidence of acidosis and lower milk fat content of milk, which are associated with a lower effective fiber content of finely ground forages.

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Management Strategies Many different management practices can improve a livestock operation’s production efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Some of the most effective practices include: Improving grazing management Soil testing, followed by the addition of proper amendments and fertilizers Supplementing cattle diets with needed nutrients Developing a preventive herd health program Providing appropriate water sources and protecting water quality Improving genetics and reproductive efficiency

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Future Strategies Probiotics Immunization Prebiotics Propionate Enhancers Oils Genetic Selection

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Probiotics: “Probiotics are microbial feed additives that influence rumen fermentation directly resulting in improved animal productivity.” It is not yet clear, it is assumed that yeast cultures reduce methane production in four ways: (1) by increasing butyrate or propionate production (Lila et al. 2004); (2) by reducing protozoan numbers ( Newbold et al. 1998); (3) by promoting acetogenesis ( Chaucheyras et al. 1995); and (4) by improving animal productivity (Bruno et al. 2005). Immunization: A future perspective is to immunize animals against their own methanogens and protozoa. This will indirectly affect the activity of rumen methanogens as they have a commensal relationship with rumen protozoa.

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Essential Oils: “Essential oils are a group of plant secondary compounds that hold promise as natural additives for ruminants.” Essential oils are present in many plants and may play a protective role against bacterial, fungal, or insect attack. Although no immediate results are found but it is seen through some trials that these oils inhibit a number of bacteria and yeasts to control fermentation gases and livestock waste odours.

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Genetic Selection: Selecting animals for a faster passage rate of feed from the rumen would reduce CH4 emissions per unit of food ingested. Faster passage rate of feed also affects propionate and microbial yield; Thus, selection of animals for this would also have major production benefits. Selecting animals with high NFE offers an opportunity to reduce daily CH4 emissions without reducing livestock numbers. If we select animals on the basis of genetic merit then as a result of increased productivity, methane production per unit of milk or meat will decrease. There may be opportunities to develop strategies that encourage acetogenic bacteria to grow so they can perform the function of removing hydrogen instead of the methanogens. Acetogens convert carbon dioxide and hydrogen to acetate, which the animal can use as an energy source. There is also research being conducted to develop a vaccine, which stimulates antibodies in the animal that are active in the rumen against methanogens. The problems with some of these mitigation strategies to reduce CH4 are potential toxicity to the rumen microbes and the animal, short-lived effects due to microbial adaptation, volatility, expense, and a delivery system of these additives to cows on pasture.

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PROJECTS TAKEN BY SOME COUNTRIES Metagenomic analysis of feed utilization and hydrogen balance in Australian livestock for lower methane emissions – CSIRO Livestock Industries This project aims to understand the structure and function of organisms in the rumen of north Australian cattle. This will form the basis of developing practical ways to redirect feed digestion and rumen fermentation to reduce enteric methane emissions. Rumen Microbial Profiling – A tool to investigate methane mitigation strategies – South Australian Research and Development Institute The purpose of this project is to develop and provide molecular techniques based on DNA profiling of rumen bacterial populations to rapidly evaluate feeding, breeding and management strategies to reduce methane production in ruminant systems. Methanotrophs in natural ecosystems and their role in ruminant methane mitigation – University of Queensland This project will investigate the occurrence of methanotrophs – microorganisms in the stomach that can convert methane back to carbon dioxide and water – and evaluate the possible use of these microbes in reducing methane emitted by ruminants .

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Strategy Potential CH4 reduction Improving animal productivity 20–30% Increasing concentrate levels at 25% or more high levels of intake Processing of forages, grinding/ pelleting 20- 40% Forage species and maturity 20–25% Rotational grazing of animals/early grazing 9% or more Use of high-quality forages/pastures 25% or more Addition of fats 33% Use of ionophores, e.g.,monensin,lasolocid 11–30% Use of probiotics 10–50% Protozoa inhibitors 20–50% Propionate enhancers (fumarate, malate) 5–11% Use of methane inhibitors up to 71% Immunization 11–23% Genetic selection 21% Use of essential oils 8–14%

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MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR ENTERIC METHANE EMISSIONS FROM DAIRY ANIMALS, SMITA SIROHI , AXEL MICHAELOWA and S.K. SIROHI Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows, D. Boadi , C. Benchaar , J. Chiquette , and D. Massé Johnson, K. A. and Johnson, D. E. 1995. Methane emissions from cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 2483–2492. Mitigation of ruminant methane production: current strategies, constraints and future options, Muhammad Farooq Iqbal .Yan-Fen Cheng. Wei- Yun Zhu . Basit Zeshan References:-

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