the counter reformation

The Counter Reformation:

The Counter Reformation AKA - The Catholic Reformation

Origins of the Counter Reformation :

Origins of the Counter Reformation Since the time of Saint Catherine of Siena ( 1347-1380 ) there had been a growing tide of demand for reform of the Church: - of the clergy; of Christian life; and of ecclesiastical administration. T he Great Schism (1378 to 1417) during which there were two elected lines of Pope, o ne in Avignon, the other in Rome, did more than anything else to prevent change, as for its duration, ecclesiastical politics preoccupied those who might have been busy with reform . The well known story of Martin Luther nailing the ninety-five theses for public discussion and debate on the church door in Wittenberg in 1517 is regarded by many as the starting point of the ‘protestant’ reformation.

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Luther’s protests and calls for reforms within the Church centred on abuses concerning the cult of relics and the selling of indulgences. Eventually , the issue of reform resulted in the rejection of the so-called pillars of the medieval Church that included the office of the papacy, the sacraments and “the superiority of monasticism as a higher form of the Christian way of life .” Martin Luther’s call for reform had far reaching effects and led to the establishment of protestant churches throughout much of Europe. In this time of crisis , the Catholic Church began marshalling its forces and reasserted its authority wherever possible. The measures it took after the Reformation are usually known as the Counter Reformation – the term preferred by RC’s is the Catholic Reformation .

The Aims Counter Reformation :

The Aims Counter Reformation Although the Roman Catholic reformers shared the Protestants' revulsion at the corrupt conditions in the church, there was none of the ‘tradition breaking’ that characterized Protestantism. The Counter Reformation was led by conservative forces whose aim was to do three things : First, it tried to preserve , but with a new spirit, the basic beliefs and practices of Catholicism. Second, it attempted to stop or even turn back, the spread of Protestantism . Thirdly, it sort to secure the Church against the more liberalizing effects of the Renaissance .

The First Phase of the Counter Reformation:

The First Phase of the Counter Reformation At first, the Church left the response to reformers in the hands of individuals . One the most effective tool of the church came into being during this time. A Spanish bravo was wounded by a cannonball in 1521 and during his convalescence underwent religious conversion. In time he went on to establish a new religious order - the Society of Jesus (1540) with the purpose of preaching and winning over new converts to the church. The Jesuits took education of the laity and the common clergy as one of their special goals. They answered to no earthly power but the Pope, and served as the premier strike force of the Counter-Reformation. By 1559, they were a world power.

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At the same time, some responded to the "faith not works" challenge of the Protestants by finding a new vocation in social justice . Vincent de Paul and Francis de Sales were intensely devoted to caring for the poor, founding orders with that mission at a time when an emerging capitalist economy was adding to the social wreckage. It was a time of increasing poverty and homelessness in the face of growing wealth and power for the elite, and this brand of counter-reformation Catholic chose to stand on the side of the meek and humble. There was also a Counter-reformation revival of Catholic mysticism , another reaction to the desire for a more personal relationship with God . Theresa of Avila reformed the Carmelites and spread contemplation at the same time that her countryman Loyola was spreading orthodoxy by whatever means necessary.

The Inquisition:

The Inquisition By the 1540's, more than twenty years after the Reformation began, it was clear that a Catholic Counter Reformation was underway. This Counter Reformation accepted the need for reform, but did not attack the traditional hierarchy and authority of the church. Instead, they turned aggressive and hostile towards the Protestants. The Inquisition , which had been in existence for many years, expanded its activities. Wherever Catholic jurisdiction prevailed, unrepentant heretics, i.e . Protestants - were subject to imprisonment, torture and death .

The Council Of Trent 1545 -1563:

The Council Of Trent 1545 -1563 The Council of Trent was called by Paul III who was Pope from 1534 to 1549, and it is considered to be one of the Church's most important councils. It convened in Trent (then capital of the Prince-Bishopric of Trent, in the Holy Roman Empire, now in modern Italy) between 13 th December, 1545, and 4 th December, 1563 in twenty-five sessions for three periods. The purpose of this council to try to define a common ground of belief and practice for all Christians, and to attempt to heal the schism. Who attended the Council ? The Pope himself didn’t attend! 700 Bishops could have attended the Council, but to start with only 31 turned up along with 50 Theologians . By 1563, a total of 270 Bishops attended and the vast majority of them were Italian which was a great bonus for the Pope as they were under his control and as he effectively controlled promotion to cardinal etc. these men would not be seen in public doing anything other than what the Pope wanted. The Bishops also insisted that they vote as individuals rather than as a block-country vote and as there were 187 Italian bishops, 32 Spanish, 28 French and 2 German - such what was to be passed at Trent was what the pope accepted as being acceptable to him.

The Work of Council Of Trent:

The Work of Council Of Trent The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , had great influence over the Council. He was firmly in favour of reform and wanted abuses looked at first in an attempt to please the Protestants and hopefully tempt them back to the church. Once they were back, they could look at doctrine. Although leading protestants were invited to the Council sessions, there was very little real hope that their views would be truly accommodated and honestly debated. In the end, the Council of Trent ended up reinforcing the more uniquely Catholic aspects of religion in contradiction to the Protestant practice.

The Work of Council Of Trent:

The Work of Council Of Trent The C ouncil issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, the Council was answering Protestant disputes. It Council issued numerous reform decrees , including instructions about the education of the clergy and the setting up of Seminaries in every Diocese.

Implementing The Changes:

Implementing T he Changes The Council entrusted the implementation of its work to the Pope; as a result, Pope Pius V issued in 1566 the Roman Catechism , in 1568 a revised Roman Breviary , and in 1570 a revised Roman Missal , thus initiating what since the twentieth century has been called the Tridentine Mass (from the city's Latin name Tridentum ). I n 1592 Pope Clement VIII issued a revised edition of the Vulgate Bible . Any reforms passed by Trent did not become church law until they were accepted (promulgated) by the Pope. This greatly extended the influence of the Pope, and it was the position of the Pope that emerged victorious from the Council of Trent and the Council formally recognised the pope as Vicar of Christ on Earth. Hence by 1563, the Pope was probably in a much stronger position than he had been in 1545.

Index Librorum Prohibitorum:

Index Librorum Prohibitorum The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications prohibited by the Catholic Church . By mid 16 th century, in the tense atmosphere of wars of religion in Germany and France, Catholic authorities reasoned that control of the press could be used to prevent the spread of heresy. The first list of the kind was not published in Rome, but in Catholic Netherlands in 1529; the Venice in 1543 and Paris in 1551. The first Roman Index was printed in 1557 under the direction of Pope Paul IV but then withdrawn for unclear reasons. A fter the Council of Trent had authorised a revised list prepared under Pope Pius IV, the so-called Tridentine Index was promulgated in 1564; it remained the basis of all later lists until Pope Leo XIII, in 1897, published his Index Leonianus .

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The aim of the list was to protect the faith and morals of the faithful by preventing the reading of immoral books or works containing theological errors. Books thought to contain such errors included some scientific works by leading astronomers and scientists. Authors did have the opportunity to defend their writings and could prepare a new edition with the necessary corrections or deletions, either to avoid or to limit a ban . In the course of centuries, editions of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum saw deletions as well as additions of content. The final (20th) edition appeared in 1948, and it was formally abolished on 14 th June 1966 by Pope Paul VI. Roman Catholic Canon law still recommends that works concerning sacred Scripture, theology, canon law, church history, and any writings which specially concern religion or good morals, be submitted to the judgement of the local Bishop.

Art & Architecture:

Art & Architecture Church buildings of the Counter-Reformation era saw the development of a distinctive style of art and architecture, with cherubic angels and saints ascending to heaven. This baroque style was intended to move the hearts of the loyal Catholics, as well as potential converts, much as a skilful preacher sought to move the intellect. Whereas the Protestants believed that religion should be a private, intellectual affair, the Catholic Church strove to touch people’s emotions .

The ‘Fig Leaf’ Campaign:

The ‘Fig Leaf’ Campaign During the Renaissance, artists, philosophers and clergy became enthralled with "classical" values - by which they meant the culture, as they understood it, of ancient Greece. These values included the celebration of the ideal human form in all its glory! In theological terms, a perfect nude sculpture is a reminder that god created man "in his image." And that's why, during the Renaissance, the Vatican filled up with nude imagery in frescoes and statuary . However, in the eruption of Counter Reformation fanaticism, an edict of the Council of Trent forbade the depiction of genitals, buttocks and breasts in church art. In 1557, the fig leaves were instituted by the bull of Pope Paul IV. In the beginning, only new art was meant to be censored. That state of the affairs, as all half-measures, did not last. The first mass campaign of adding plaster fig leaves to the existing statues began almost immediately. Often in painted works, drapery or extra branches from any nearby bush was used. For free-standing statues carved or cast fig leaves were added.

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The Last Judgment was an object of a bitter dispute between Cardinal Carafa and Michelangelo . Because he depicted naked figures, the artist was accused of immorality and obscenity. When the Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena said “it was mostly disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns”. Michelangelo worked da Cesena's semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld. It is said that when he complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain. The genitalia were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra , whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname "Il Braghettone " ("the breeches-painter ").

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The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden , by Masaccio. Painted in 1425, covered up in 1680, and restored in 1980 . All in all, the campaign raged for 450 years and resulted in the destruction of a great deal of Catholic visual art.