2. International Migration intro and theory

International Migration : 

International Migration

Discussion : Immigration Pretest : 

Immigration pretest last week All answers were “FALSE”. We’ll discuss each in detail this semester. Many common assumptions of immigration are not supported by research. This semester: de-bunk myths of immigration and migration Discussion : Immigration Pretest

Introduction to International Migration : 

Previous reading: Immigration & American Century Immigration to USA is not something new USA has always been an immigrant country American identity rooted in welcoming of strangers Statue of liberty as premier national symbol Introduction to International Migration

Slide 4: 

Desperate economic conditions are driving record numbers of Central Americans to cross Mexico hoping to get to the U.S. Many ride “The Beast” - the train, and risk mutilation and amputation. Some make it, but many others are caught and deported, or return home maimed … or dead. Central American migrants ride the train headed northwest Sept. 6, 2006 from Gregório Méndez, Tabasco, Mexico. [video]

Slide 5: 

Thousands of Africans seeking a way out of punishing poverty have fled by boat in the Mediterranean toward southern Italy or climbed barbed wire into Ceuta and Melilla. Wealthy beyond belief in the eyes of destitute people almost everywhere, the European Union also draws an illicit flow of migrants from the former Soviet Union, China, Latin America and the Arab world. Together, these tides of people are adding up to one of the most significant migrations of current times… "If you are as poor as we are, you are not afraid of death," said Jope, 34, an electrician and polite father of two. "I want a house. I want to educate my children. The risk doesn't matter."

Slide 6: 

Migrant workers on a building construction site in Dubai. No country is as dependent on migrants as the United Arab Emirates, where foreigners make up about 85 percent of the population and 99 percent of the private work force. They rise before dawn, work six days a week and return to the camps, where they have time to do little but eat or sleep. They are under close watch, with no right to unionize and no chance at citizenship.

Who is an ‘immigrant’? : 

A person who migrates to another country, usually for permanent residence; A person residing outside of the country of his/her birth; A newcomer to a country who has settled there Diverse & complex motives differentiate immigrants. Three main categories of primary immigration are: Permanent settlement migration Temporary labor migration Refugee movement & asylum-seeking seeking refuge in a foreign country because of war & violence, or out of fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, membership in a particular social group (US law) These three intermingle & are often followed by family reunification migration (per laws of receiving country) Who is an ‘immigrant’?

Population of Immigrants Worldwide, 1960-2010 : 

Population of Immigrants Worldwide, 1960-2010 Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision http://esa.un.org/migration,

World Population and the Population of Immigrants, 1960-2010 : 

World Population and the Population of Immigrants, 1960-2010 Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision http://esa.un.org/migration, 2-4% of world population are immigrants

Slide 12: 

~13.5% of US population are international migrants

Historical trends of Migration : 

1880-1924: age of mass migration, primarily from Europe 1860-1920 foreign-born increased from 4 million to 14 million Reduction of immigration in 1920s because of restrictions to S. and E. Europe immigrants, continued restrictions to Asians From 1970 to 2000 increase from about 10 million to 30 million migrants (~11% of population) Currently: ~12% of total USA population Historical trends of Migration

Study of Populations: Demography : 

Study of births, deaths, and migration Migration most difficult to conceptualize and study United Nations estimates international migrants about 3% of world population in year 2000 Countries vary substantially in concentration in international migrants USA has always been a migrant country Japan, Spain, etc. have lower concentrations Study of Populations: Demography

Demographic transition and Migration : 

Demographic transition: Change from high fertility & high mortality  low fertility & low mortality Health improvements: Changes in death from acute to chronic illnesses Migration: Not all countries have made the transition Aging population in developed countries Demographic transition and Migration

What is migration : 

Spatial and temporal dimensions Permanent or semi-permanent move, generally at least 1 yr Crossing geopolitical border Change in baseline population reference and in local networks International migration Crossing national borders Internal migration Within national boundaries What is migration

Who migrates? : 

Voluntary migration Self-selected, healthy, young (20s). Tend to have more resources, education than nonmigrants in sending areas (college educated from LDCs) Choose to move to join family, friends, work “free migrants” move because of higher aspirations “pioneering migrant”, few in number Free migrants set patterns and trends for future migration Lower the social and economic costs of migration As costs diminish, migration becomes a collective behavior Involuntary migration Wars, deportation, enslavement, political uprisings, refugees, asylum seekers Who migrates?

How many Migrate? : 

About 50% international migration stream is women and girls, the other 50% men and boys 2000: 175 million people international migrants, 3% world population Over past 4 decades, overall trends have remained fairly stable fluctuations due to fertility changes, country changes (Soviet Union dissolve), job market changes, war How many Migrate?

Theoretical Issues : 

Why do people migrate internationally? Legal ability to migrate : public policy Social and economic forces Neoclassic economic theory (micro/macro) Migration occurs as a response to regional differences in income opportunities generated by imbalances in spatial distribution of factors of production Migration continues until wage returns for labor balance in sending and receiving communities Assumes migrant has information about employment opportunities in destination Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

New Economics of Migration Intersection of labor market factors and family/HH variables affect migration decisions be incorporating notion of minimizing risk and maximizing earnings Social rank, relative income, potential for social mobility influence migration decisions Market (crop insurance, unemployment insurance, futures market, capital markets) failures often impede social and economic mobility in sending countries Members return remittances Remittances may increase HH income by more than the value of the remittances themselves through multiplier effects Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

Labor market segmentation theory/ Dual Labor Markey Theory (macro) Emphasizes social stratification variables affect migration Dual labor market theory envisions firms and their employees stratified into primary and secondary sectors Primary sector meets “basic demand” with better paying jobs Secondary sector meets fluctuating or seasonal demands and relies on low-pay and labor-intensive jobs Employers can’t raise wages at “bottom” because those with higher prestige jobs would demand raises too. Jobs @ “bottom” demand workers who work only to earn money without desire for promotion, status, prestige Need immigrants because fewer teens, women with “supplementary income” jobs to fill positions Further segmentation by gender, ethnicity, nativity Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

World Systems Theory (macro) Owners from rich countries seek land, raw materials, labor, and market in poor countries Colonialism Migration result of disruptions and dislocations in process of capitalist development Critique of capitalism Emphasizes influence in migration of the character of relationships among countries, regions, and cities within countries. Core cities (NYC, LA, London) exercise control over system Evolution of global economy has stimulated migration Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

Network Theory (micro) Explains how connections among actors influence migration decisions. Links individuals to families and jobs Declining costs and declining risks Political Economy Theories World economic system rests on political and military might of dominant states Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

Institutional Theory Private institutions and voluntary organizations arise once international migration has begun. These institutions are to satisfy the demand created by imbalance between large number of people who want to migrate and limited visas As organizations develop to support, sustain and promote international movement, the flow of migrants becomes more institutionalized and independent of causal factors Governments have a difficult time controlling migration flows because of institutionalization Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

Cumulative Causation In addition to growth of networks and development of institutions, international migration sustains itself in other ways that make additional migration more likely over time Each act of migration alters social context within which subsequent migration decisions are made. Six factors linked to cumulative causation Distribution of income Distribution of land Organization of agrarian production Culture of migration Regional distribution of human capital Social labeling Theoretical Issues

Theoretical Issues : 

Migration systems theory Migration flows acquire a measure of stability and structure over space and time Countries within one system don’t have to be geographically close Multi-polar systems possible – set of core countries receive immigrants from a set of overlapping sending nations Nations may belong to more than one migration system More common in sending countries Countries may drop out of / join new system in response to social change, economic change, political change. Theoretical Issues

Evaluating Theories : 

Causal process of migration may operate on multiple levels simultaneously Theories developed to understand migration processes suggest causal mechanisms that operate at divergent levels of analysis Individual Family Nation World Evaluating Theories

Data Sources about Migration : 

Administrative registers of populations or foreigners Administrative records, such as visas, work permits, residence permits Entrances and departures at borders Census and household surveys Data Sources about Migration

What Empirical research teaches us about immigration to the United States : 

More immigrants go the USA than any other country Immigration to USA is important USA as a superpower Economic globalization Immigration of increasing importance to USA THE major component of population change What Empirical research teaches us about immigration to the United States

USA migration Flows : 

Kinds of USA migration flows Legal immigrants Refugees and asylees Unauthorized migrants Non-migrant or temporary visas Composition of flows Before 1960: Primarily European Since 1960: changing origins. 84% from Latin American countries or Asia Convert USA from biracial (white/black) to multiracial USA migration Flows

USA migration Flows : 

Refugees and Asylees 1st admitted on refugee status after WWII Primarily driven by foreign policy considerations Unauthorized Immigrants May enter legally or illegally, but stay illegally Bracero program (began 1942) – temporary contract laborers could come and work legally. Program ended in 1964 and flow of undocumented from Mexico began to increase. Non-immigrant Entrants Student visas, work visas, USA migration Flows

Impact of Immigration of Population Diversity : 

Immigration primary cause of growth of American population from less than 4 million in 1790 to over 270 million in 2000. USA population would be about 1/3 current size without migration Fears through history that migrants would not “assimilate” unfounded In 1900, USA population primarily White, with only 12% Black, and 1% of all other ethnicities combined although about 1/3 of population were migrants From Europe, “Italian”, “Greek” and others not considered “white” when first migrated Impact of Immigration of Population Diversity

Immigrants and Cities : 

Immigration and Industrialization connection Industrial transformation of USA economy in early decades of 20th century primarily urban Cities offered expanded employment, commerce, offices Needed immigrants to work in factories, mining, etc Immigrant labor built foundations of modern economy. More workers = more production, expansion of national economy Immigrants expand labor supply, which could reduce wages, but also expand total productivity, which can increase national income and income of native borns. Immigrants and Cities

Immigrants and American Culture : 

Many great cultural icons, musicians, actors of 19th, 20th and 21st century were immigrants or children of immigrants Immigrants often lack resources to get ahead in conventional careers, so find work in ethnic enclaves or fields opened to talent, such as professional sports, acting, music Something about being slightly an “outsider” that gives an edge to artists Immigrants and American Culture

Immigrants and USA Social System : 

Immigrants have been a part of the social system and society in the USA for centuries “American dream” stems from migration Changing structure of immigrants Fewer from Europe Children of immigrants lose many distinctive attributes and assimilate Intermarriage and diversity can lead to a more tolerant society. Immigrants and USA Social System

Demographic and Economic Context of USA immigration : 

Many flows for variety of reasons since WWII Economic prosperity of 50s and 60s Percentage of immigrants in population in late 20th/early 21st century substantially lower than early 20th century Research Directions Level and role of international migration to countries with low fertility and increasing longevity Role of migration in mitigating economic woes of aging population Will diversity in migrants increase social tensions or prove to be a new strength and break down old ethnic barriers? Demographic and Economic Context of USA immigration

Discussion and Conclusion : 

Over past 35 years, world witnessed substantial increases in international migration Increases from different flows Reception immigrants receive affected by strength of national economies at time of arrival Healthy economy = more welcome reception Unhealthy economy - more difficulty integrating immigrants Migration deeply rooted in population change, and may mitigate difficulties of caring for aging population, lower fertility, and smaller workforce of countries that have experienced the demographic transition. Discussion and Conclusion

Introduction to Nobodies : 

Book about slave labor and trafficking in the USA Brief strong language… Intense subject Exam 3 will have essay question (1-2 pages) about this book, so keep up with it even if we don’t talk about it in every lecture. Slavery Temporary or permanent condition of having one’s rights and one’s person utterly controlled by another Introduction to Nobodies

Nobodies : 

“Florida” Slavery in Florida orange industry and difficulties of prosecuting How each of us benefit from slavery Costs of food and unfairness of wages An increase of only $50 / per year / per American family could have workers paid fairly. “Tom” – Good discussion of “Florida” and what it means in the overall picture of the book. Nobodies

Nobodies: Modern American Slave Labor and the Dark Side of the New Global Economy (John Bowe, 2008) : 

Nobodies: Modern American Slave Labor and the Dark Side of the New Global Economy (John Bowe, 2008) “…here were 700 workers on U.S. soil working under threat of death, for low pay or possibly no money at all”… and yet all charges against Ramiro Ramos were dropped or never brought

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? : 

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? Since 1997, the U.S. Department of Justice has, through work with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers, prosecuted six individuals on charges of slavery in the agricultural industry. These prosecutions have led to freedom for over 1,000 slaves in the tomato & orange fields of South Florida. Video from Immokalee, FL

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? : 

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? Agricultural production in the global economy: Globalization & the problem with jobs in agro-business Degrading of agricultural labor - low wages, arduous work, difficult conditions (Bowe, p. 8) Fragmented chain of responsibility; Position of farm labor contractors in post-IRCA era Political/economic power of agribusiness Slavery cases are difficult to detect & prosecute: Occur beyond most Americans’ “cognitive map,” hidden in remote immigrant communities

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? : 

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? Position of enslaved in U.S. & home countries Undocumented migrants – unlikely or unable to seek help; under “near total control” of contractors Coyotes, raiteros & conditions of debt bondage (corruption in migration industry) Given corrupt legal cultures in origin societies – enslaved unlikely to put trust in law enforcement Not held in chains, but other methods of coercion – especially threats of violence—are used to enslave Lack of regard for others’ human rights among average Americans “addicted to cheap, illegal labor”

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? : 

According to John Bowe’s account, How Can Slavery Exist in the Modern-day U.S.? Position of enslaved in U.S. & home countries Undocumented migrants – unlikely or unable to seek help; under “near total control” of contractors Coyotes, raiteros & conditions of debt bondage Corrupt legal cultures in origin societies – enslaved unlikely to put trust in law enforcement Not held in chains, but other methods of coercion – especially threats of violence—are used to enslave Monopsony & power of large trading partners  squeeze on farmers to keep prices low Lack of regard for others’ human rights among average Americans