Testing underlying ability in pupils

Primary School age 5 – 11 : 

Primary School age 5 – 11 Assessment of children who learn differently

Assessment at primary level : 

Assessment at primary level 1. Background information 2. Underlying ability 3. Attainment – reading, writing, spelling, maths 4. Cognitive processes Outcomes of assessment

Considerations for this age range : 

Considerations for this age range By the end Key Stage 1, children may have fallen at the first hurdle of learning to read. However, at this stage it is possible to make the most difference by appropriate interventions. As children approach transfer to secondary schooling, effective support can help prevent increasing difficulty and distress caused by poor literacy skills and ineffective learning strategies.

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Information gathered at the Foundation Stage can identify the ‘at risk’ child and this monitoring process will continue at Key Stages 1 and 2 but will now include careful monitoring of progress in literacy and numeracy.

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A huge learning curve takes place during the primary stage of education. This is a time of fast development. By the time a child leaves primary school he/she is expected to have mastered functional and fluent literacy skills. Children who have not reached this stage face the daunting prospect of entering secondary school knowing that they are already behind their peers. Individual assessment makes it possible to identify the additional support they need.

Specific Learning Difficulties : 

Specific Learning Difficulties Specific learning difficulties have many guises. Some children will identify themselves very early as they struggle to learn alphabet sounds. Others will cope with the early stages of reading through developing a good sight vocabulary, but may never manage to crack the alphabetic code completely. Children with milder problems may not be noticed until a later stage, when their difficulties with spelling and writing at an age-appropriate standard become apparent.

Assessment : 

Assessment The major issue in assessment should always be what can be done to help these children with their difficulties whilst utilising their strengths. This is what makes assessment more useful than screening. Screening has its place in identifying those who might benefit from an in-depth assessment.

Background information and observation : 

Background information and observation Parent’s concerns should always be heeded. They know their children best and become worried if they do not make the same progress as peers or older siblings. Children are also aware of others who are racing ahead with reading. Anxiety frequently accompanies difficulties at school and can show itself in unwillingness to get ready in the morning, tummy aches and ‘clamming up’ about the school day. Teachers will be aware of the child who is not learning as expected. She has often seen hundreds of children passing through this stage of education, so is a hugely important source of information. The classroom assistant works closely with individual children and may have a useful contribution to make from her perspective.

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Children’s ability to attend and concentrate in class or at home is a useful developmental pointer. Are they constantly fidgeting? Is it hard to get them to respond? The development of spoken language is always a key area to observe. Are they expressing themselves easily and fluently or are there immaturities or difficulties in articulation (e.g. lellow instead of yellow) or in the use of language (e.g. Miss telled me). There may be a tendency to interpret words (e.g. ‘Pull up your socks’ ) at a literal level! Informal questioning of the children themselves should add even more to this picture. Do they like reading? What do they read? Do they enjoy writing? What do they enjoy most at school? What are they good at? What do they dislike? What would they like more help with?

Underlying Ability : 

Underlying Ability For this age group it is important to look at underlying ability using tests that are appropriate for age and range. Test need to cover both verbal and non-verbal skills.

Tests of underlying ability include: : 

Tests of underlying ability include: British Picture Vocabulary Scale (3 years – 15 years 8 months) – measures receptive vocabulary – i.e. the words a learner understands and it can illuminate how much the pupil might understand of what goes on in the classroom. Non-Reading Intelligence Tests 1 -3 (NRIT) 6 years 4 months – 13 years 11 months - administered orally to group, so do not disadvantage children who cannot read well.

Ability Tests (cont) : 

Ability Tests (cont) Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM) 5 – 11 years – Tests non-verbal reasoning and is appropriate for the very young Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) 6 years to adult – more appropriate at Key Stage 2

Underlying Ability : 

Underlying Ability A noticeable imbalance between verbal and non-verbal scores can indicate specific learning difficulties affecting verbal or non-verbal skills if either is below average ( i.e. that standardised score of 8.5) The profile of a dyslexic child may well show significant or comparative deficits in verbal skills. (If he has a relative strength in non-verbal reasoning his teachers and parents need to know that he finds it much easier to learn in a practical way, rather than purely by listening and talking.) Weak vocabulary underpins many pupils’ difficulties with reading and comprehension. For those with significant deficits in vocabulary acquisition referral to a speech and language therapist may be appropriate. Teaching Tip! – Listening to stories on tape containing good-quality prose helps to develop vocabulary especially if an adult discusses the content with the child

Reading Attainments : 

Reading Attainments Reading should be assessed for skills in decoding, for knowledge of sight vocabulary, for comprehension and fluency at text level. A good place to begin formal assessment is with a single-word reading test to provide an indication of starting level - this will be helpful in looking at other aspects of reading.

Reading attainment Tests : 

Reading attainment Tests Wide Range Achievement Test 3 (WRAT-3) 5-75 years Graded Word Reading Test 6 – 14 years Word Recognition and Phonic Skills (WRaPs) 4 years 6 months – 9 years

Non Word Reading Tests : 

Non Word Reading Tests Nonword Reading Test 6 – 16 years – has advantaged of being timed so that accuracy and fluency are assessed. Phonological Assessment Battery (PhAB) 6 – 14 years – there is a non word reading subtest with this but it is not timed.

Tests of Reading in Context : 

Tests of Reading in Context Diagnostic Reading Analysis (DRA) 7 years – 16 years – measures accuracy, comprehension and speed; provides a useful comparison with listening comprehension Neale Analysis of reading Ability (NARA) 6 years – 12 years and 11 months – Differs from the above in that you can help child with words they cannot read.

Reading accuracy and Comprehension : 

Reading accuracy and Comprehension Comparing reading accuracy and reading comprehension can be illuminating especially when there is a discrepancy between the two. This may well be so for dyslexic learners who may read inaccurately because they miss out function words ( such as the,a,for,of) yet do obtain good scores for comprehension. Sometimes they will be unable to say a word, yet know what it means, or they may mumble over words they find hard to pronounce. All this affect their accuracy score, yet they do gain the sense of the passage.

Reading Accuracy and Comprehension : 

Reading Accuracy and Comprehension It is significant when the score for comprehension is lower than the one for accuracy. This may be due to a ‘barking at print’ approach where the effort to decode prevents meaning being fully accessed, or it may mean that the child has more generalised language comprehension difficulties. It is important to observe the strategies used in reading. Is the child a logographic reader, relying mainly, on the shape and appearance of words? How far does he have knowledge of alphabetic principles? Does recognise initial letters but guess medial and final sounds? In what ways does he approach text? Does he take cues from context or pictures? Does he self-correct? Miscue Analysis – will provide additional quantified evidence of reading strategies.

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Sometimes signs of visual discomfort are obvious when the child frequently loses his place or rubs his eyes.

Recommendations - reading : 

Recommendations - reading The general principles of intervention in reading at this stage are to develop word-, sentence- and text-level skills. It is important to target text-level skills by encouraging the enjoyment of reading – developing fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. It is to this end that approaches such as paired reading, repeated reading and listening to stories can be recommended. Helping the pupil to ‘interact’ with a text rather than just reading it, may prove helpful from earliest stages. This means visualising the content, thinking about it, forming an opinion, reading between the lines and discussing the content with another person. At word level it is impossible to separate reading and spelling and spelling interventions, as they are interrelated and draw on each other. The use of multi-sensory techniques which involve all the senses, will build up spelling skills which feed into reading accuracy.

Sound-symbol correspondence : 

Sound-symbol correspondence It should not be taken for granted that a sound-symbol correspondence has been full mastered and this can be assessed using tactile letters in the early stages and should include the consonant digraphs ch, th, sh, ng as well as single letter sounds. Confusion between letter names and sounds is cause of common spelling errors such as rm for arm. The test for this: Checking Individual Progression in Phonics (ChiPPs) 6 – 7 years – Requires the reading of a graded series of real and non-words which clearly identify the stage of breakdown of phonic knowledge. It provides follow-up work with the provision of the relevant unknown word families.

Recommendations - phonics : 

Recommendations - phonics Multisensory methods and personal picture cues will help to alleviate confusion between vowel sounds. Encouraging mastery of pure sounds and drawing attention to the way they are pronounced will help children distinguish between pairs of voiced/unvoiced consonants such as b/p, d/t, v/f and z/s. The teaching of phonics is an integral of spelling tuition. Many young dyslexic pupils will find isolated phonemes difficult to recall, so vowel, digraphs and dipthongs can be taught in rime chunks. However, specific attention to phonemes can be addressed through a wealth of published programmes which encourage the use of hearing, seeing, saying and writing letters, alongside the use of movable letters.

Writing Attainments : 

Writing Attainments Any analysis of spelling skills should consider the pupil’s performance in a single-word spelling test and a piece of free writing.

Single Word Spelling Tests : 

Single Word Spelling Tests All single word spelling tests give a spelling age and each has its own advantages. Helen Arkell Word Spellings Test 5 years – 17 years – contains follow up suggestions Parallel Spelling Tests 6 – 15 years – suited to whole class testing and has useful follow up suggestions WRAT-3 Spelling Test 5 – 75 years

Unaided Free Writing : 

Unaided Free Writing This helps to see whether the spelling in context is accurate as single-word spelling. This gives an idea of how automated spelling patterns are. Lack of automatic spelling skills is often illustrated by failure to use written vocabulary which matches levels of spoken English. The pupil may tend to stick to ‘safe’ vocabulary. A child who is not spelling by sound (i.e. alphabetically) may attempt to spell words by remembering how they look. They word jumped might be written as jmudpe (The ‘e’ is often added as he realises the word does not look long enough!) there is no attempt to hollow the order of speech sounds As the child moves into the alphabetic stage his phonic knowledge is matched by his segmentation skills. There may be a development through jpt, jupt, and ultimately jumpt, as more speech sounds are identified. Alphabetic spelling of high-frequency irregular words such as sed/asid, wos/was herald this stage, and should be seen in a positive light initially. Correct spelling of a word such as a jumped indicates that the child understand the significance of the past tense marker – ed and is attaining competence at the orthographic level.

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Children may now be reading irregular words fluently but not yet spelling them correctly. The process of refining spelling, noticing double and silent letters and so on, is easier for the pupil with the ‘inner voice’ as he reads. This voice is continually matching speech sounds to the representation on paper and become tuned to pick up irregularities (e.g. I don’t hear /b/ at the end of thumb)

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When looking diagnostically at spelling skills and strategies note the level of phonic knowledge revealed: single letteres, blends, digraphs, common letters strings (e.g.-tion). Are there sounds in words for which the child has no phonic representation? For example, does he write lok instead of look (oo), bening instead of burning (ur), crach instead of crash (sh). Are errors phonetic. Semi-phonetic or sometimes bizarre (e.g. kerm rather than garden)? Does the child vocalise whilst sounding out spellings or is he quick and confident? Are common irregular words spelled correctly or are the correct letters present but in the wrong order? Is he displaying a knowledge of spelling rules?

Recommendations – phonological difficulties : 

Recommendations – phonological difficulties If the pupil has phonological difficulties and is introduced to a structured spelling scheme, he is likely to pay attention to the visual similarities in the lists of words, but not relate them to the sounds so phonological skills and spelling need to be addressed together. Good readers and spellers use analogy as one of the sub-skills for attacking unknown words. They decode by linking the visual the visual patterns or sound patterns of words they already know to the unfamiliar word. Thus if they know train, they can read rain, complain, explain etc. A spelling programme based on rhyme analogy can help the child to develop and use this skill. Use the teaching of word families containing the same sound patterns. It is important to combine this work with auditory work that involves saying the sounds. Cumulative and structured dictations for rehearsal will test the effectiveness of the teaching.

More recommendations : 

More recommendations There are a number of tried and tested schemes that work at phoneme level. These schemes will need additional work on phonemic awareness. Research indicates that this level is crucial: rhyme training alone does not generalise to segmentation at the phoneme level. For the spelling of irregular words, advise the use of other strategies such as mnemonics, simultaneous oral spelling, colour coding of difficult parts of words, or visualisation. Focus on spelling errors found in the child’s free writing, as these are words he will want to use most often.

Free Writing : 

Free Writing The root cause of difficulty with free writing may be spelling, handwriting, grammar, organisation, or memory difficulties. To judge writing speed, older pupils, who are able to write more extensively, can be asked to mark the text at five minute intervals. Use of ‘Assessing and Promoting Writing Skills’ by Alston for standardised norms of writing speeds in Key Stage 2, alongside some excellent guidance for writing analysis.

Free Writing : 

Free Writing The free-writing sample should be considered in terms of technical skills and content such as – skills – spelling, handwriting, grammar, presentation and punctuation and content – creativity, style and structure. When looking at handwriting consider handedness, letter formation/proportion, style (cursive/print/mixed) pencil grip/control and paper position. Look for difficulties with letter/number orientation, particularly b/d, p/q or the use of capitalised versions of B and D. This is more significant after the age of seven, as these behaviours are common in the younger child. Consider whether grammar and punctuation are age-appropriate. These are inter-related. It is clearly unrealistic to expect understanding of the possessive apostrophe or of clauses at Key Stage 1. on the other hand,

Recommendations- handwriting : 

Recommendations- handwriting In looking at handwriting, analyse the main cause of a pupil’s problems. A checklist is useful for involving the learner in identifying and targeting his own difficulties. Recommendations could include some fine motor exercises, postural or pencil grip changes. Storyboards could help with the visual presentation of a sequence of ideas. These can later be written in either words, sentences or paragraphs under each picture – a useful differentiation task for classroom teachers who want to address all ages stages of ability in writing. Writing frames like storyboards, help to structure ideas, cut down the writing load and help towards an understanding of sentence structure. Mind maps can be used to plan writing; tapes used to record thoughts prior to writing. Word processing can support extended pieces of writing where drafting and redrafting is required.

Cognitive Processes : 

Cognitive Processes Phonological Processing – The main standardised tests for this stage are: Pre-School and Primary Inventory of Phonological Awareness (PIPA) 3 years – 6 years 11 months – Assesses letter knowledge and phonological awareness at syllable, onset-rime and phoneme level. Sound Linkage – 7 years to adult – contains an excellent diagnostic test which finds the breakdown points in development of the ability to segment words. Begins by testing at syllable level, then rhyme, then phoneme. Follows up with suggested work at the weakest level before moving on to the next stage.

Phonological Processing : 

Phonological Processing Phonological Abilities Test (PAT) 5 years – 7 years – contains four phonological awareness tests Phonological Awareness Battery (PhAB) 6 – 14 years – a battery of 8 phonological tests and one semantic fluency test that can be used as a measure against which to compare his phonological fluency – appropriate throughout Key Stage 1 and 2 Comprehensive test of Phonological Processing (CToPP) 5 years – 24 years 11 months – measures phonological awareness, phonological memory and rapid naming (so useful in defining a range of difficulty)

Phonological Processing : 

Phonological Processing In assessing phonological skills, consider how fast is the child’s response. Does he sound out/blend syllables? Does he make use of rhyme? Can he manipulate phonemes? Does he need pictures to aid memory? Does he exhibit word-finding difficulties? Is there a contrast between phonological and semantic fluency?

Recommendations – phonological awareness : 

Recommendations – phonological awareness Phonological skills underpin the ability to spell and in turn to decode. Support for this function should focus on the level at which the pupil is experiencing difficulties. This could be with syllables, rhymes or phonemes. Work on phonological awareness must be done through auditory (not written work) but should always be linked in with spelling work.

Memory : 

Memory Testing Digit Span is the traditional way of identifying strengths and weaknesses in verbal memory. Working memory is a skill required for word blending, for mental arithmetic, for following instructions and explanations. Both forward and reverse tests require tests efficient use of the ‘inner voice’. This can be dependent on efficient phonological skills. The Digit Span test on the Dyslexia Action website can be used in this age range. Informally, it will also be necessary to find out whether a child can remember the days of the week, months, alphabet sequence, times tables, date of birth and telephone number. This analysis will highlight difficulties to be addressed in the individual teaching programmes or through class work. Note how quick responses are and the strategies used – for example, visualisation, vocalisation, ‘chunking’ digits.

Recommendations - memory : 

Recommendations - memory Memory is a difficult area to train in isolation and it is better to recommend that strategies be applied to specific tasks. It is helpful to link one modality to another to enhance memory. For instance, when copying from the board, read aloud what is being copied. Recommend also strategies such as colour coding, visualisation, mind-mapping, mnemonics and acronyms.

Recommendations - memory : 

Recommendations - memory Memory is inextricably linked to attention and listening. Encourage the use of strategies to aid listening: maintaining eye contact, thinking about what is being said and visualising the content. Strategies for the teacher may be to call the child by name before giving instructions, give instructions in small steps, and ask the child to repeat what he has been asked to do. To remember common sequences, recommend use of movable letters for alphabet sequencing games. Advise that days of the week and months of the year are not taught at the same time. Days can be taught one by one and colour coded to the child’s particular interest for each day.

Personal organisation and Recommendations : 

Personal organisation and Recommendations Organisational skills may be informally investigated through observation and questioning. The child might have difficulties with keeping personal possessions in order, getting started on activities, following the school timetable, or finding his way around school. Recommendations – strategies for resolving these practical difficulties which often cause a disproportionate amount of anxiety and irritation, should be suggested, working in partnership with parents and school staff.

Visual Skills : 

Visual Skills Does the child skip or repeat lines when reading or omit words? Does he use his finger to point or complain of print moving? Does he have difficulty with near- or far-point copying, rest his head on the desk whilst writing or reading, or occlude one eye? Does he suffer from excessive fatigue or show signs of squinting or repetitive blinking? Is his presentation of written work ‘all over the place’ perhaps with writing moving away from the margin? Does he have difficulties catching a ball?

Visual Skills : 

Visual Skills Visual problems may be optical (eye behaviour, scotopic sensitivity) or cognitive (e.g. perception and memory). Sometimes a child might have a weakness in visual perception – his mind does not make sufficient sense of what his eyes see. The Beery Buktenica Visual Motor Integration Test has two subtests assessing visual perception and motor skill. Many pupils learn to use the mediating route of language to talk through what they need to analyse visually, so it is important to note the strategies used in this test as well as the Raven’s. Difficulties with visual perception might contribute to problems in reading, drawing and aspects of maths involving spatial skills.

Recommendations – Visual difficulties : 

Recommendations – Visual difficulties Optical problems may lead to referral to an optmetrist specialising in reading difficulties and/or use of coloured overlays. Advice about where the child sits in class, enlargement of worksheets, large print books, computer fonts and screen colour might be appropriate. Templates for guiding layout in maths, letters, written work can be very helpful.

Motor Skills : 

Motor Skills Motor Screening Test 7 years to adult – ten tasks which inform the tester of what difficulties to look out for and follows up with excellent activities for structured programmes of work Movement Assessment Battery for Children Checklist 6-9 years – provides normative data of movement and manual dexterity Beery Buktenica Test Motor Integration Test 2 – 18 years – has excellent sections which look in great detail at the stages of normal motor development in the very young child It is important to note: poor co-ordination affecting sport and activities such as bike riding; bad posture; untidiness in the classroom; slow and/or untidy writing; awkward pencil grip.

Recommendations : 

Recommendations Popular physical activities – swimming, trampolining and dancing - can be helpful with motor skills.

Outcomes of assessment : 

Outcomes of assessment Assessment links the evidence from tests results and behaviour to form conclusions about the nature of the child’s difficulties. By emphasising each child’s very sound attainments, acknowledging and specifying their difficulties and suggesting ways of addressing them, the children themselves, their parents and teachers are being provided with the information they need to make constructive and relevant Individual Education Plans.

Modes of Intervention : 

Modes of Intervention Having identified your pupil’s strengths and weaknesses from assessment and formulated your conclusions, the next step is to address the difficulties through a programme of teaching support. This can de done on several levels that take into account the waves of intervention recommended in the Code of Practice, idividual support, group support and differentiation within the classroom. An individual support session can be specifically tailored towards a child’s individual needs and small achievable targets set. These can be laid out in a cumulative and sequential programme of lessons delivered by a specialist teacher.

Summary : 

Summary If children are experiencing difficulties in literacy acquisition, this is the stage when it is possible to make most differences by appropriate intervention. Children with dyslexia and/or other specific learning difficulties often learn in a different way The purpose of an individual assessment is to identify the additional support they need Use the age-appropriate tests to investigate underlying ability, attainment, and cognitive processes Look for clusters of difficulties which make up an individual pattern Decide on the most appropriate modes of intervention and consider when to refer to other professionals

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Linking effective, multi-stranded assessment to structured cumulative teaching programmes.