the achievements of astronomy through cave painting age to large hadro

The Achievements of Astronomy through Cave Painting Age to Large Hadron Collidor Age. : 

The Achievements of Astronomy through Cave Painting Age to Large Hadron Collidor Age. Bijay Kumar Sharma , National Institute of Technology ,Electronics & Communication Department, Patna 800005,Bihar, India. bijay_maniari@rediffmail.com; electronics@nitp.ac.in Bhola Ishwar is Professor Emiritus at Post Graduate Department of Mathematics, BRA Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar 842001.

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Ever since human-kind became aware of the surroundings it has used the sun and the night time sky for keeping track of time, keeping track of seasons and for guidance during long journeys. BC 1400 Chinese eclipse records begin. BC 2000 Rigveda has the first reference of Astronomy. Sun is regarded as the center of the sphere-hence heliocentric theory is born before Greeks and 4000 years before Renessaince.

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Aryabhatta born in Kerala(476AD) studied in Univ of Nalanda,Bihar, and carried out his observations and calculations in Khagaul,Patna. Thus Khagaul-Shastra (Science of Celestial Bodies also known as Astronomy & AstroPhysics) was born. Aryabhatta wrote his Magnum Opus titled Aryabhattia wich was translated in 13th Century in Latin.

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600 AD Varahmihira gave the theory of gravitation-GURUTWAKARSHANA. 700 AD BrahamaGupta recognised the Gravity of Earth and recognised the fact that all bodies on Earth are held by this force. Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddhanta-Shrimoni. The following treatises are found on Astronomy: i.Siddhanta Shrimoni; ii. Surya Siddhanta; iii. Panchanga- Indian Calender based on Sun which gives the likely time of occurrence of Solar and Lunar Eclipses. Circumference of Earth is measured as 5000Yojanas where 1 Yojan=7.2kms. This is very near the actual meaurement of 36,000Kms

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500AD- Panch Siddhanta gives the calculations of Eclipse. These books have clearly recognized Sun as the center of our Solar System. These books have also recognized stars as suns. These books have also recognised Moonlight as the reflected sunlight from the surface of our Moon.

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Prehistoric (before BC500) We studied the daily motions and long term motions of Sun, Moon and Stars and developed a sense of time in terms of day, hours, minutes and seconds and we also learnt to keep track of our calendar. Spin of Earth gave us the sense of days, orbital motion of Moon gave us the sense of month and cyclic repetition gave us the sense of year.

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Classical Period (BC 500 to 1400AD) In this period Greek Science & Astronomy developed. A lot of empirical knowledge was gathered and simple geometrical models were developed. On the basis of these models shape sizes of nearby celestial bodies were estimated. Greek Civilization gave way to Roman Civilization. Navigation and merchant ships were developed. But due to constant attack by Goths, Vandals and Huns and due to their own inbuilt contradictions by 500AD Roman Empire fell. This was the Dark Ages of Mediaeval Period. The center of scientific activity shifted to the Arab World.

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Renaissance (1400 AD to 1650 AD) The Gutenburg Revolution took place with the invention of rotating printing machines. The Protestant Reform movement spread through out Europe. Magna Carta was already signed in England. Productive forces got a chance to develop unhindered. Telescope was introduced. Ptolemic World View was replaced by Copernican World View in spite of constant persecution by the Church. Bruno, Copernicus and Galileo became martyrs to the cause of free enquiry and the spirit of free enquiry was established.

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Modern Period ( 1650 AD to the present) The Principia Mathematica is published by Sir. Issac Newton which establishes the classical mechanics and theory of gravitation. Einstein gives his theory of General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics is developed. These lay the foundation of Modern Astronomy.

LANDMARKS OF ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENTS TIMES : 

LANDMARKS OF ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENTS TIMES Egyptian Calender- 5000-4000BC- This was based on the studies of the annual flood in the Nile. This was a solar Calender. Ancient Celts in England built STONEHENGE which was used as an astronomical calendar.

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The Neolithic and Bronze Age farmers used this structure to predict the summer solstices(the longest day in Northern Hemisphere) in relation to their farming activities. Stonehenge could calculate times in solar year and times in lunar months. With this detailed knowledge eclipses could be predicted on a 56-year cycle.

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Eclipses follow 18.61 years cycle also known as saros cycle. Three times 18.61 is 55.83 which is 56 years. Three black stones and three white stones were moved around 56 Aubrey holes. One of these stones on a certain Aubrey hole indicates eclipse in that year. The Pyramids of Egypt(BC2540). The pyramids of Egypt and their alignment along certain cardinal directions stand testimony to the fact that Egyptians had a sophisticated calendar, could relate stars, solstices and equinoxes. This also suggests that they had developed surveying skills.

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A star map painted on the walls of a cave in Spain 14,000 years ago at Cueva di El Castillo cave, in the mountains of Pico del Castillo. This is a constellation of stars known as Northern Crown. Maya Civilization developed in Central America and extended up to New Mexico. They had been in Central America since pre-historic times and gradually evolved into a Nation State by 1000AD. They had a well developed calendar which had 260 days for their ritual. They had a vague solar year also of 365 days. They had a special 5 day month in addition to 18 months each of 20 days. They had a name for days as well as for months.

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In Central America there was Venus Calendar which was based on the appearances of Venus. It had a period of 2920 days, within which, five appearances of Venus years of 584 days and eight solar years of 365 days occur.

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE. : 

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE.

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The celestial sphere is a construct which allows the positions of stars and planets to be projected on the celestial sphere. The position of stars appears to be fixed on the sphere with respect to one another. The planets, moon and sun are seen changing position with respect to the stars. Hence they are called wanderers.

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Polaris star in the North is the North Polar Star around which all the stars are wheeling around. If we take a photograph with a long exposure we will see this wheeling effect as shown in Figure 7. This wheeling is due to Earth’s spin on its rotation axis. Hence the time period of rotation is 24 hours. The projection of this spin axis on the celestial sphere is Celestial North Pole(CNP) in North and Celestial South Pole(CSP) in South. Polaris happens to lie near the CNP and is aligned with the tail of Sapt Rishi constellation of seven stars. The Sapt Rishi is also known as Big Dipper and its pointer always points to Polaris star. Polaris star is seen to be absolutely still for the present.

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The daily rotation of the Earth causes each star to revolve around the north celestial pole. This is called diurnal motion, pictured above. At present, the star Polaris (the North Star) is very near the North Celestial Pole. So the star studded sky seems to be wheeling around CNP or around Polaris.

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All the planets in our solar system lie in one common plane called the ECLIPTIC PLANE. The normal to the ecliptic plane is projected into the celestial sphere into North Ecliptic Pole and South Ecliptic Pole. North Ecliptic Pole lies in DRACO constellation and South Ecliptic Pole lies in DORADO constellation. Earth also lies in this ecliptic plane and its orbital plane also lies in the ecliptic plane.

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Earth’s spin axis is not normal to this ecliptic plane like a upright spinning top. If the Earth was an upright spinning top it would have continued to spin upright till eternity and there would have been no seasons. Spin axis of the Earth is oblique and has an obliquity angle of 23.5º.

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Just as an oblique top gyrates or precesses around the normal to the ground in the same way the Earth also gyrates or precesses around the normal to the ecliptic plane and the period of precession is 26,000years. As a result of this, the spin axis traces a circular locus in the sky as shown in Figure 8. This circular locus is presently passing through Polaris. 3000 years earlier it was passing through Thuban star.

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In 3000 BC, the very faint star Thuban in the constellation Draco was the pole star. In about 14000 AD, the brilliant Vega will likely be the pole star.

Figure 8. The bold circle is the locus traced by the spin axis of Earth in the sky over a period of 26,000years. : 

Figure 8. The bold circle is the locus traced by the spin axis of Earth in the sky over a period of 26,000years.

Stars : 

Stars They remain fixed with respect to themselves on the celestial sphere. Star rises 3 minutes 56 second earlier each day because of Earth’s position change in its orbit by 0.98º per day. This change corresponds to 3 minutes 56 seconds earlier rise for stars.

Planets : 

Planets Planets move along Ecliptic that is they remain in the same plane as ecliptic plane. They remain 18º within the ecliptic plane. The star constellations within this 18º band are known as Zodiac Signs. All planets move E to W.

Sun : 

Sun Sun follows the ecliptic. Because of rotation of Earth , sun is seen to move E to W per day but in long term it moves W to E 1° angle per day because in 365.25 days Earth moves once around Sun through 360º hence from Earth’s frame Sun appears to shift 0.98º East each day relative to stars.

Moon : 

Moon Moon moves around Earth once with respect to stars in 27.3 days. This is sidereal month. But with respect to Sun frame of reference phases repeat in 29.5 days. Therefore 29.5 days is lunar month or synodic month. Moon spins on its axis once in 27.3 days and orbits around the Earth also in 27.3 days. This is called synchronous motion and Moon is said to be tidally locked to Earth.

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Because of Synchronous motion Moon offers the same face to Earth always. Man got to see the dark side in 1958 through Luna 3 and in 1968 through Apollo 8. Earth is spinning in 24 hours and Moon is orbiting in 27.3 days therefore Moon moves E to W in 12 hours 25 minutes and Moon rise is 50 minutes earlier.

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As Earth rotates once on its axis Moon also shifts in its orbit by 360º/27.3 days = 13.18º/day. In this 24 hour Earth has also moved by 0.98º. Hence net shift of Moon is 12.2º which is 50 minutes for Moonrise.

Equatorial plane : 

Equatorial plane The plane normal to the axis of spin of Earth is equatorial plane. The equatorial plane is inclined to ecliptic plane at 23.4º. The spin axis cuts the celestial plane at Celestial North Pole(CNP) and Celestial South Pole (CSP) .

Ecliptic Plane : 

Ecliptic Plane The plane in which sun and all planets lie is called Ecliptic Plane. This is also known as disc of accretion. The axis normal to this plane cuts the celestial sphere in Ecliptic North Pole and Ecliptic South Pole. Ecliptic North pole lies in the constellation of Draco.

Solstice : 

Solstice When Sun is at Tropic of Cancer we have summer solistice and when Sun is at Tropic of Capricorn we have winter solistice. In summer solistice we have longest day. In winter solistice we have shortest day in Northern Hemisphere. In Summer Solistice Sun never sets in North Pole hence it is called the land of Midnight Sun and Sun does not rise at South Pole.

Equinox : 

Equinox The celestial equator cuts the ecliptic circle at vernal and autumnal equinoxes. At equinoxes day and night are equal.

Equatorial Coordinate System : 

Equatorial Coordinate System In this system declination is similar to latitude. It is measured in degrees north or south of celestial equator. Right ascension is similar to longitude. It is measured in hours- miniutes-seconds eastward from vernal eqinox.

Ecliptic Coordinate System : 

Ecliptic Coordinate System The position is specified in Celestial Latitude and Celestial Longitude. The angular distance north or south with respect to ecliptic plane is Celestial Latitude. Angular distance in hours-minutes-seconds along the Ecliptic from Vernal Equinox to east is Celestial Longitude.

Altitute-Azimuth System : 

Altitute-Azimuth System This a local coordinate system. An object is measured in degrees above the horizon towards the zenith. This is the altitude. The angular distance measured along the horizon from due North is azimuth angle.

The constellations which dominate the background sky during the passage of Sun in different months of the year_ the classical astronomical zodiac. : 

The constellations which dominate the background sky during the passage of Sun in different months of the year_ the classical astronomical zodiac. As the Sun traverses the ecliptic path, it appears to move against a band of 12 ancient constellations called the Zodiac,

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Aries(Ram)_Mesh April 19 Taurus(Bull)_Vrish May 15 Gemini (Twins)_Mithun June 21 Cancer (Crab)_Kark July 21

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Leo(Lion)_Singh August 11 Virgo (Maiden)_Kanya September 17 Libra (Scales)_Tula November 1 Scorpius (Scorpion) _Vrischik November 24

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Sagittarius (Archer)_Dhanu December 18 Capricornus (Water Goat) _Makar, Jan 20 Aquarius (Water Bearer) _Kumbh, Feb 17 Pisces(Fishes) _Meen March 12

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Above the Arctic Circle at latitude 66.6° north (and below the Antarctic Circle, latitude 66.6° south), the Sun can be circumpolar in the summer, yielding 24 hours of sunlight and a midnight Sun). The farther north of the Arctic Circle (or the farther south of the Antarctic Circle), the more days of midnight Sun you will see. In the tropics (between latitudes 23.4°N at the Tropic of Cancer and 23.4°S at the Tropic of Capricorn) the Sun can be overhead sometime during the year (on June 21 at the former, on December 22 at the latter).

The Celestial Sphere : 

The Celestial Sphere

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Solar & Lunar Eclipse : 

Solar & Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse is the shadow cast by Sun due to Moon coming in between Sun and Earth and all three are collinear. Lunar Eclipse is the shadow cast by Earth on Moon when Earth comes in between and exactly in line with Sun and Moon.

Solar Eclipse Diagram : 

Solar Eclipse Diagram

Lunar Eclipse Diagram : 

Lunar Eclipse Diagram

A perspective view of Earth’s orbital plane and Moon’s orbital plane. : 

A perspective view of Earth’s orbital plane and Moon’s orbital plane.

Different phases of Moon. : 

Different phases of Moon.

THE GIANT STRIDES MADE BY GREEK ASTRONOMERS. : 

THE GIANT STRIDES MADE BY GREEK ASTRONOMERS. Measurement of the circumference of the Earth by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (BC276-194), a Greek Philosopher-Scientist. Measured value:24,621miles, correct value: 25,000miles. Measurement of Earth-Moon distance_Aristarchus of Samos(BC310-230), (864000/3.5)=240,000miles which is very near the correct answer.

Measurement of Earth-Sun distance. : 

Measurement of Earth-Sun distance.

THE SHIFT OF SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY TO THE ARAB WORLD. : 

THE SHIFT OF SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY TO THE ARAB WORLD. With the fall of Roman Empire in 500AD the epi-center of scientific activity shifted to Arab, Indian and Chinese Civilization. Khawarzimi developed algebra and geometry for astronomical and navigational calculations.

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Omar al Khayyami , a Persian mathematician , developed a very accurate calendar, better than Gregorian calendar. Arab influence stimulated astronomy in Moghul India. Observatory of Jaipur is a result of this influence. Arab Navigators had written a book titled “ The Book of Profitable Things concerning the First Principles and Rules of Navigation.”

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They developed navigation by North Pole star , Polaris, and by Astrolobe which was developed by Europeans as Sextant for measuring the latitude. the brightest stars have been assigned names by Arab astronomers and navigators such as Betelgeuse, Deneb, Aldebaran and Altair.

THE DAWN OF MODERN ASTRONOMY_ASTRO PHYSICS. : 

THE DAWN OF MODERN ASTRONOMY_ASTRO PHYSICS. With the invention of rotating printing machine, the second information revolution, also known as Gutenburg Revolution, occurred. Gutenburg Revolution was followed by the discovery of Steam Power by James Watt, known as Industrial Revolution,

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Old Democratic Revolution spread through out the Colonial and Feudal world as well as in England. The mercantile capitalism increased manifold. Whole World was divided among the leading industrial states such as Portugese, Spain, France and England. Renaissance Movement swept through Europe.

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This was the time which saw the emergence of a new science and a new enquiry even at the cost of Martyrdom. Bruno was burnt at the stakes for teaching the concept of many earths. Galileo was excommunicated from Christian Community for teaching Heliocentric Theory as opposed to GeoCentric Theory. This was also the time when there was a great debate whether we are Cardio-Centric or Cephlo-Centric.

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Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Kepler and Newton contributed to the development of heliocentric world view. At the turn of 19th and 20th Century by the herculean effort of George Ellery Hale a series of giant telescopes were built using the donation given by business Tycoons such as Yerkes of Chicago and Carnegie of Washington State.

The birth of Modern Observational Astronomy. : 

The birth of Modern Observational Astronomy. Table 5. The details of Giant Telescopes built by George Ellery Hale and others till date.

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Science & Technology of Adaptive Optics : 

Science & Technology of Adaptive Optics 36 separate hexagonal mirrors are seamlessly connected in one telescopic mirror. Each mirror is of 6”(15cm) diameter. It is deformed 670 times per second to compensate for the blurring effect of the intervening atmosphere.

Very Large Telescope : 

Very Large Telescope VLT consisting of four units of telescopes, each of 315’(8.2m) aperture have been established in Paranal Observatory, Cerro Paranal, Atacama Desert, Northern Chile. There are 4 separate Reflecting telescopes each of 315’ (8.2m) aperture . The four combined will have the power of 630’(16.4m) aperture reflecting telescope.

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The combined formation is called VLT Interferometer. This gives an enhanced resolution.

The major advances made by the use of large Telescopes: : 

The major advances made by the use of large Telescopes: Stars are being thrown out of the milky way at a very high speed. 1000 quasers at the very edge of the Universe have been discovered using the magnification power of the giant telescopes as well as using the gravitational lensing effect of the intervening galaxies.

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Faint light weight dwarf galaxies have been recorded orbiting Andromeda galaxy. This dwarf as well as others will shed important light on galaxy evolution. 9 Galaxies have been recorded at a distance of 11 light years that is they are only (13.7-11)=2.7 Gyrs old. This sheds an important light on how the galaxies are born.

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Black Holes either come as light black holes 10MΘ in mass or as massive or super massive black holes > 109 MΘ . There are no intermediate sized Black Holes. Massive galaxies have massive black holes. Light weight globular cluster have light weight black holes. There are no intermediate Black Holes. This may hold the key to the way galaxies are born and the way they evolve.

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At 12.3 G light years we find galaxies producing stars at 4000 number /year where as Milky Way produces 10 stars/year. These extreme star producing stellar machines are called Star Burst Galaxies. The answer to this question holds the answer to the evolution of galaxies. This is challenging the hierarchical model of galaxy evolution.

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Mass measurement was very difficult for Brown Dwarf. The Large Telescope Interferometer has resolved two Brown-Dwarf pairs and accurately measured the mass. For 2MASS1534-2952AB the separation is 2AU and mass is 30mJ of each component. For HD130948BC the separation is of the same order but mass is 45mJ. They donot fit in the theory. So the theory will be revised.

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At the very infancy of Universe that is 11Gyrs ago Ultra Compact Galaxies have been detected which have as many stars as the Milky Way i.e. 200×109 stars but their diameter is only 5000 light years whereas Milky Way has 100,000 light years diameter. This will tell us how Galaxies evolve.

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Through nulling mode of NASA funded Keck Interferometer, the glare of star light has been suppressed and RS Ophiuchis, a recurrent Novae System has been studied. This is a White Dwarf-Red Giant System. White Dwarf is accreting matter from Red Giant. Over a period White Dwarf reaches critical mass where thermal nuclear fusion starts and Novae recurs.

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In this fashion Novae has been recurring in 1898-1933-1958-1967-1985-2006. Therefore this is called cataclysmic star system. But it was found that Novae was not producing the dust. Dust was present at 20AU from White Dwarf even before blast reached. So the model of Novae is being revised.

Why are we going for Thirty Meter Telescope(TMT)? : 

Why are we going for Thirty Meter Telescope(TMT)? It has nine times as much sensitivity as 10m Telescope. In addition the sensitivity is uniform over the wavelength from 0.1μm to 2μm. Hence it ideal for very faint and distant object.

What do we hope to achieve by building TMT? : 

What do we hope to achieve by building TMT? The relation between dark energy, dark matter and ordinary matter. We will also test the Standard Model of elementary particles. Characterization of earliest stars & galaxies. Characterization of the epoch of re-ionization. Galaxy Assembly and evolution over the last 13 billion years.

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Connection between super massive black holes and galaxies of different kind (spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies and irregular galaxies. Star by star dissection of galaxies to 10 million galaxies. Physics of star and planet formation. Discovery of Exo-planet. Surface chemistry of Kuiper Belt Object. Search for extra – terrestrial life (SETI).

The expanding theory of Universe : 

The expanding theory of Universe vrecession = H.d Wien’s Law of Black Body Radiation gives: W = (0.29/T Kelvin) cm if the predicted temperature of relic radiation is 3 Kelvin then W will be 0.1cm wavelength radiation. This precisely was detected by Wilson and Panzias in 1965 at Bell Labs.

Chandrashekher Limit : 

Chandrashekher Limit In 1967 the Pulsars were discovered which are neutron stars. In 1930 itself S. Chandrashekher had predicted in his Doctoral Thesis that star of masses below 1.4MΘ where MΘ is the mass of Sun end up in Nova Explosion shrinking into a White Dwarf, an electron degenerate star.

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Stars masses above 1.4MΘ but below 3MΘ end up in Supernova explosion shrinking into a neutron star. This is a neutron degenerate star. Since axis of rotation and axis of magnetism are inclined there is a synchrotron radiation . This radiation sweeps across the Universe as the beacon light of the Light House sweeps the ocean.

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If Earth comes in line of sight, a repetitive pulse is detected. This is why the name Pulsar was given to a Neutron Star. This vindicated the position of S. Chandrashekher for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics in 1983.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation(CMBR) : 

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation(CMBR) Around 300,000 years after the Big Bang when Universe Temperature fell to 4000 Kelvin , Hydrogen & Helium Ions neutralized. Radiation got decoupled from matter. If radiation was isotropic then matter must also be uniform through out the space. this uniform matter could not have given rise to super clusters, clusters, galaxies, stars and planetary systems.

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Today we find a very hetrogenous material world. In remote past there must be non-uniform distribution of matter. Since this matter decoupled from radiation hence relic radiation must carry this imprint of matter distribution at that time. Hence there must be some kind of non-uniformity in relic radiation.

Cosmic Background Explorer(COBE) : 

Cosmic Background Explorer(COBE) The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) detected by Wilson & Panzias was perfectly isotropic which should not be. Hence in 1990 Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite was launched and CMBR was measured from outer space and a ripple kind effect was detected in CMBR.

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). : 

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). Anisotropy of CMBR measurement was further refined in 2003 when measurement was made by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). This clearly detected the temperature variation in CMBR to justify the present day heterogenous material world.

Big Bang Theory : 

Big Bang Theory Universe started from a singularity where it was at infinite temperature and infinite density. Before we discuss the Big Bang we must know the constituent particles of matter. We always thought that Matter is made of Molecules and Atoms. Atoms are made of electrons, protons & neutrons.

Standard Model of Elementary Particles. : 

Standard Model of Elementary Particles. Electrons belong to a group of Leptons. Electrons are indivisible. Protons and Neutrons are divisible and made of quarks. The fundamental particles are 3(three) generations of leptons and quarks as given in Table 6.

The three generations of leptons and quarks. : 

The three generations of leptons and quarks.

Fermi-Dirac Statistics as opposed to Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics. : 

Fermi-Dirac Statistics as opposed to Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics. Baryons are real particles and obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics or Maxwell-Boltzmann Statics. No two real particles can occupy the same phase space. In Quantum Mechanics we say that no two particles can have all four quantum numbers to be the same. The four Quantum Numbers n(Principal), l(Azimuthial),m(Magnetic) & s(Spin).

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Quarks can never remain independent. They are always confined into groups called hadrons. Hadrons are divided into : Triplets called baryons and Doublets called mesons. Baryons are real particles and Mesons are virtual partricles.

Degenerate and Non-Degenerate : 

Degenerate and Non-Degenerate When number of Baryons is approximately equal to or slightly less than the number of available states then it is DEGENERATE SYSTEM and Fermi-Dirac Statistics is obeyed. When number of Baryons is much less than the number of available states then it is NON-DEGENERATE SYSTEM and Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics is obeyed.

Examples of Non-Degenerate and Degenerate. : 

Examples of Non-Degenerate and Degenerate. Electrons in Conduction Band of Metal obey Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics and is non-degenerate. Electrons in White Dwarf obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics and is degenerate. Neutrons in Neutron Stare is a degenerate system.

Bose-Einstein Staistics. : 

Bose-Einstein Staistics. Virtual particles have (n)ħ spin angular momentum Two virtual particles can occupy the same phase space. This is known as Bose-Einstein Statistics. Photons have 0 spin and are Bosons.

Four fundamental forces: : 

Four fundamental forces:

The First Three Minutes : 

The First Three Minutes This is the title of the book written by Steven Weinberg. After 3 minutes temperature fell to 745.356×10^6 Kelvin and we had 75% H ions and 25% He ions. When plasma neutralized at 4000K after 300,000 years we had 77% H atoms and 23% Helium atoms and traces of Deutrium and Lithium.

Hierarchy of Material Universe : 

Hierarchy of Material Universe Once plasma has neutralized, gravitational accretion starts. Denser part of matter accrete to form super clusters, clusters and stars with their solar systems start forming. Evidences are there that the earliest clusters formed 1Gy after the Big Bang.

Phase transition from SUPERSYMMETRY to GUT. : 

Phase transition from SUPERSYMMETRY to GUT. Earlier matter and anti-matter were balanced. Earlier Baryonic number not conserved. Below 10^27 Kelvin after 10^-34 secs, CP(Charge Conjugation and Parity Conservation)was slightly violated in favour of matter. Then onward baryonic number is conserved i.e. total matter is conserved.

Large Hadron Collidor : 

Large Hadron Collidor Large Hadron Collidor(LHC) is going to investigate the events at 10-14 seconds after the Big Bang when the temperature was 1017K and energy was at 10TeV. At 7 TeV we will see CP(Charge Conjugation & Parity Conservation) Conservation violation favouring matter over anti-matter. This also gives 3 decay modes and 3 lifetimes of Z0 intermediate vector bosons implying 3 generations of leptons and quarks. Most of the mass of hadrons is not due to quarks then what it is due to ?

Higgs Boson : 

Higgs Boson Mesons have very different and heavy masses. Quarks are very light. Then how do the baryons acquire mass. Higgs Boson the elusive god particle has a role to play.

CURVATURE OF THE UNIVERSE. : 

CURVATURE OF THE UNIVERSE. Curvature of the Universe will decide if Universe will continue to expand to its cold death or it will stop expanding and start collapsing and again rebound. or it will remain as it is.

Open Universe : 

Open Universe This has negative curvature. It has horse’s saddle. vrecession > vescape .

Closed Universe : 

Closed Universe It has positive curvature and vrecession < vescape . It is shaped like the sphere. Universe’s expansion is checked and eventually it collapses. It is likely to rebound as simulation have shown treating space-time continuum as discrete time system and using difference equation.

Flat Universe : 

Flat Universe It has zero curvature as in Euclidean space where sum of internal angles of a triangle is equal to 180 degree. Universe remains as it is. vrecession = vescape .

Critical Density of Universe : 

Critical Density of Universe Based on Wilkinson Anisotropy Microwave Probe(WMAP) it has been established that 4% is ordinary matter and 23% is dark matter and 73% is dark energy. Universe is 13.7Gy old. Based on the measurements made by WMAP it is concluded that spatial geometry is flat. This has included baryonic matter(ordinary matter), dark matter and dark energy.

MEASUREMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCES. : 

MEASUREMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCES. Parallax error was developed as a method of measuring distances of stars. The PARallax shift of 1 SECond of arc over a period of six months gives 1 parsec distance of the given object which suffers a parallax shift of 1 second of an arc. Most stars are farther than 3 parsecs. 1 parsec = 3.26 light years =3×1018 cm

Distances(continued) : 

Distances(continued) By parallex error method only upto 20 parsecs could be measured. Beyond 20 parsecs Cepheid Variables are used as standard candle. Galactic distances are also measured using Eq.(1) the Hubble relation ship. v=Hd. Velocity of recession has to be determined from Z ( red shift).

Red Shift Method of Distance measurement. : 

Red Shift Method of Distance measurement. Z(red shift)=∆λ/λ=(1+v/c)/√(1-v2/c2) – 1; Receding galaxies spectrum suffers from Doppler Red Shift. The red shift gives velocity of recession. Velocity of recession gives distance using Hubble relationship.

Distance of Galaxies and QSO(quasi stellar objects) based on Z measurement. : 

Distance of Galaxies and QSO(quasi stellar objects) based on Z measurement.

Supernova 1a as a standard candle : 

Supernova 1a as a standard candle In a binary star , one of the main sequence stars may complete its life span, burst into a NOVA explosion giving rise to Red Giant and then shrinks into White Dwarf. This is always the case with stars below 1.4MΘ A white dwarf in a binary system may accrete matter and grow in mass as well as in size. Ultimately it will reach the Chandrashekher Limit of 1.4MΘ .

Supernova 1a (continued) : 

Supernova 1a (continued) As soon as it reaches the limit it implodes into a supernova and collapses into a neutron star. This has been termed as Supernova 1a and used as a standard candle for measuring the distance of the galaxy in which it lies. In a distant Galaxy if a Supernova1a is observed and its Intensity measured then using Eq.(7) its distance R can be measured.

Accelerating expansion of Universe : 

Accelerating expansion of Universe If this data of Supernova 1a is combined with z (Redshift) measurement then rate of acceleration of expansion of the Universe can be measured. A young Scientist Adam Reiss did precisely that. In 1997 based on the detection of 12 distant supernova, this conclusion was arrived at.

THE STORY OF UNIVERSE BASED ON REDSHIFT MEASUREMENTS. : 

THE STORY OF UNIVERSE BASED ON REDSHIFT MEASUREMENTS. Figure 20. The Histrogram of galaxy distribution with radial distance as measured by red shift. The green colour gives the distribution actually measured by SLOAN studies. Purple gives the distribution if galaxies were randomly and uniformly distributed. (The data was obtained from SDSS_Sloan Digital Sky Survey)

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After matter decoupled from radiation, Universe rapidly cooled and ‘Dark Ages’ prevailed up to 400Myrs after the Big Bang. During these dark ages Universe was rapidly cooling and no stars or galaxies had yet formed. Thus the Universe was a dark place. At about 400Myrs after the Big Bang the stellar activity started with the formation of first stars and first galaxies. This was redshift of Z=7 as seen from the Table 5. This marked the end of the Dark Ages and beginning of Cosmic Activities. A handful of galaxies and quasers have been detected at redshift of 5 to 7.

Top-down approach. : 

Top-down approach. Thus smaller galaxies with most primitive matter formed in the past. Subsequently these galaxies merged to form larger and more evolved galaxies. Our galaxy Milky Way formed 10Gyrs before and in this galaxy our Solar System was born 4.567Gyrs before.

SEARCH FOR EXTRA TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE(SETI). : 

SEARCH FOR EXTRA TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE(SETI). Now we know that a large number of stars are harbouring extra-solar system. In these Extra solar Systems we have planet systems. Some of the Planets may very well lie in Goldilock Zone where conditions are favorable for the beginning of life. Therefore a quest started for detecting Exo-planets in 90’s and in 1995 first exo-planet was detected.

Exo-planets detected by various methods till July 2008. : 

Exo-planets detected by various methods till July 2008.

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Fomalhaut Debris compared to Solar System. Fomalhaut Debris by itself. HD8799 a,b,c

CONCLUSIONS : 

CONCLUSIONS We have taken a trip through ages as to how Astronomy developed right from Cave-painting era to the present information and computer era. Star studded sky always excited our imagination and as we peer deep into Universe to the farthest corner the mystery deepens further. Today we have developed an understanding of the observable material world but we are yet to develop a theory which will comprehensively explain all the structures we see around.

Post-Copernican View : 

Post-Copernican View All celestial bodies obey Kepler’s Law namely: G(M+m)=Ω^2×a^3 where a=semi-major axis and Ω orbital angular velocity of secondary around primary. But they are rarely in Keplerian Equilibrum. Secondary is always migrating with respect to Primary.

Two Kinds of Migration : 

Two Kinds of Migration Secondary is either in an expanding spiral path launched on a Non-Keplerian Journey from inner Clarke’s Orbit to Outer Clarke’s Orbit. Charon has completed this Non-Keplerian Journey and is stay put in the outer Clarke’s Orbit. Our Moon has gone half way on this expanding spiral path. Our Moon continues to spiral out with a radial velocity of 3.8cm per year.

Inward non-Keplerian Journey : 

Inward non-Keplerian Journey Mars has two moons:Phobos and Deimos. Phobos is launched on a contracting spiral path. It is losing altitude at the rate of 20cm per year. All hot Jupiters are on contracting spiral path.

Gyst of Post-Copernican World View. : 

Gyst of Post-Copernican World View. Natural satellites are spiraling inward or outward with respect to Planets. Planets are spiraling inward or outward with respect to respective Host Stars. Stars are spiraling inward or outward with respect to Galactic Center. Galaxies are spiraling inward or outward around the Cluster center. This goes on ad-infinitum.

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This brings us to the final conclusion of this talk. The experimental parts are verified. But the theoretical part is still under peer review.

Thank You ! : 

Thank You !