logging in or signing up Wireless avsar Download Post to : URL : Related Presentations : Share Add to Flag Embed Email Send to Blogs and Networks Add to Channel Uploaded from authorPOINTLite Insert YouTube videos in PowerPont slides with aS Desktop Copy embed code: (To copy code, click on the text box) Embed: URL: Thumbnail: WordPress Embed Customize Embed The presentation is successfully added In Your Favorites. Views: 1654 Category: Entertainment License: All Rights Reserved Like it (0) Dislike it (0) Added: November 07, 2007 This Presentation is Public Favorites: 1 Presentation Description No description available. Comments Posting comment... By: aditya.call (25 month(s) ago) Hi that wonderful ppt u hv.. wud appreciate if you could pls share with me.. it is required for me to clear one training.. m running out of time.. its Sunday mning.. wl hv to present it in even.. pls fwd it to my mail aditya.call@gmail.com.. Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close By: prashant72 (27 month(s) ago) hi plz forward these to me.... plz.. my mail id is prashant.meti72@gmail.com Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close By: hmpatel007 (39 month(s) ago) plz let me download this ppt...i am a student of clectronics and communication engg....this ppt will be much helpful for my personal learning... Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close Premium member Presentation Transcript The development of wireless and radio: The development of wireless and radioSlide2: The inventor of wireless is generally recognized to be Guglielmo Marconi, born at Bologna, Italy, in 1874. As a youth he took a keen interest in science and in 1895 he succeeded in sending wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles -- the first practical system of wireless telegraphy. Wireless telegraphy did not involve transmitting speech or music. Slide3: Telegraph messages were sent by tapping out letters of the alphabet with a telegraph key. The telegraph changed the code into electrical impulses and transmitted them over telegraph wires or cables. Marconi's system replaced the wires and cables with radio waves, but used the same Morse code as the telegraph. Telegraph key: Telegraph keySlide5: It was called wireless because it was a telegraph system using radio waves instead of wires to connect sender and receiver. By Marconi’s time the telegraph had linked many parts of the world, but signals had to be carried though cables or wires. This was a problem for ships that needed to communicate with each other or with shore stations. Before the invention of wireless, communication at sea was limited to visual range, using flags and light signals. Slide6: The navies of the world seemed an obvious sponsor for Marconi's invention. Marconi first tried to interest the Italian navy, but Italy declined to support his work, and in 1896 Marconi took his apparatus to England. Britain had the world's largest empire, and to service it and guard it, it had the largest navy. Marconi demonstrated his system successfully in London and the British granted Marconi the world's first patent for a system of wireless telegraphy.Slide7: In 1899 Marconi established wireless communication between France and England across the English Channel. In 1900 he transmitted the first wireless signals across the Atlantic between England and Newfoundland, Canada, a distance of 2,100 miles. By 1910 wireless was in general use for ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communication. Slide8: A major disaster demonstrated the utility of wireless – the sinking of the ocean liner Titanic, in April, 1912. The Titanic was the world's largest and newest passenger liner. She was about 800 feet long (four city blocks) and had four huge funnels. She could carry 2500 passengers in cabins on 11 decks, and a crew of 860. On her maiden voyage from Britain to the New York, the Titanic hit an iceberg and sank. Of the 2,228 passengers and crew aboard, only 705 were saved. The Titanic: The TitanicSlide10: The Titanic disaster was a major spur to the development of wireless. At the time of her launch, the Titanic represented the "state of the art" in shipbuilding. She carried wireless equipment built by the Marconi Company. The ship's wireless had a range of over 400 miles under good conditions. On the night of the disaster the Titanic was trying to break the record for crossing the Atlantic. The sky was clear, the sea was calm. Wireless room aboard Titanic: Wireless room aboard TitanicSlide12: Before the collision, the Titanic received wireless messages from another ship in the vicinity warning of icebergs ahead. The captain ordered a change of course, but despite this, at 11:40 P.M., a lookout shouted "iceberg dead ahead!" over and over. The helmsman attempted to swerve aside, but it was too late. A sharp ice floe ripped open a 300-foot gash in the ship’s steel plating, flooding the watertight compartments. Just two hours later, the ship lurched to bottom, carrying with it 1,500 helpless passengers. Iceberg seen from Carpathia: Iceberg seen from CarpathiaSlide14: The Titanic was certified to carry more than 3,000 passengers and crew. It was thought to be unsinkable and the lifeboats had room for only 1,200 people. Not all the lifeboats it had could be launched, and those that were could barely hold the 705 survivors. Titanic sinks: Titanic sinksSlide17: Another passenger ship, the Californian, was just ten miles away when the Titanic struck the iceberg. Earlier in the evening, the Californian’s wireless operator had transmitted a message to ships in the area warning of the ice. He later turned on his wireless again but the operator on duty on the Titanic told the Californian to "shut up", as he was interfering with the Titanic's messages to a shore station. The Californian's operator switched off his equipment and went to bed – and missed the Titanic’s wireless SOS. Slide18: Some 60 miles away was another passenger liner, the Carpathia. The wireless operator heard the Titanic’s urgent SOS. Eight other ships also heard the SOS and were racing to the scene. The Capathia got there first, some four hours later, but found only 705 passengers huddled in lifeboats. All were rescued.Carpathia to the rescue: Carpathia to the rescueSlide20: The Titanic disaster shocked the world and emphasized the importance of wireless as an emergency communications medium -- but also as a means of transmitting news. Ships had begun installing wireless in the early 1900’s but used it mainly to was to send messages known as "MarconiGrams" to shore stations on behalf of wealthy passengers. The ships also received news reports by wireless which they used to print daily newspapers for passengers. Marconigram: MarconigramSlide22: The sinking of the Titanic was a huge, world-wide news story. Wireless communication between the rescuers and could be picked up by other ships, land stations and a growing army of radio amateurs. These messages were passed on to newspapers -- some of which also had their own wireless receivers. The drama was closely followed by millions of people around the world. Newspapers headlined the disaster story day after day. Their reports often noted that the news had been received "by wireless," to indicate how up-to-date the information was. The press coverage spurred other media to join the hysteria. There have been over sixty books, several movies, and now dozens of Web sites.Slide24: Investigations into the disaster led to laws that ships carrying passengers to foreign ports had to have a wireless communication system. The ships’ wireless rooms and shore stations had to be manned twenty-four hours a day. A separate frequency was set aside for distress calls -- and gave them absolute priority. Also part of the Titanic legacy are requirements for an adequate number of lifeboats, for lifeboat drills, and for escape-route diagrams. Slide25: Marconi recognized the need for operator training and established wireless schools throughout the world for operators. But Marconi saw no need for voice transmission by radio waves. He felt that Morse code was adequate for communication. He did not at first foresee that radio could become a medium for broadcasting -- the same signal sent to multiple receivers -- rather than point-to-point transmission. He did, however, become heavily involved in broadcasting (using voice) once the technology had been developed. Slide26: Marconi left the early experiments with wireless telephony to others, including North American inventors Reginald Aubrey Fessenden and later Lee De Forest. In December 1900, Fessenden, combined the technologies of wireless and the newly invented telephone, and transmitted 'words without wires' over a distance of about mile. It was the first time that speech had been transmitted by electromagnetic waves. Slide27: The Titanic jump-started the wireless, and eventually the radio and electronics industry. New technical developments, such as the invention of the vacuum tube, made it possible to send not only coded messages, but voice and music over the airwaves. Wireless now became a mass medium, and became known as radio. The first broadcast radio services began in Europe and North America in the early 1920s.Slide28: World War One spurred the development of wireless. Before that, the only communications from the battlefront was by wire telephone. From the air, the only solution had been observers in hot air balloons tethered with a telephone line to report enemy locations. Governments devoted huge resources to development of wireless for military purposes, including direct communication with airplanes. Slide29: On the battlefields of Europe, the military importance of radio was immediately apparent. On the British front lines, operators with portable transmitters proved invaluable, including sending warnings of poison gas attacks to the men to put their gas helmets on. During the war, the Germans used radio transmissions to help airships navigate to targets they wanted to bomb. The war also exposed thousands of service personnel to radio technology, and saw a few experiments with broadcasting entertainment to the troops. Once the war was over and restrictions on public use of radio were lifted, broadcasting began a period of explosive growth. Slide30: From the beginning, clear differences emerged on the role of broadcasting in society, how it should be financed and how it should be controlled. In the United States, the first commercial broadcast station, KDKA in Pittsburgh, began in 1920. Cities, churches, schools, and businesses in the U.S. started their own broadcast stations. Manufacturers of radio sets offered programming to encourage people to buy them. Soon businesses realized the potential of advertising to a mass audience over the airwaves. That quickly became the main source of revenue. From the beginning broadcasting in the United States was seen as a commercial venture. Slide31: AMERICAN MODEL This developed into what is known as the American or 'free market' model – the capitalist approach to media. In this model, the main purpose of broadcasting is to make money. To make money, broadcasters have to maximize their advertising revenue. To do that, they have to maximize their ratings. To do that, they have to give the public what they want. This is why the American broadcast media are often criticized by Europeans for producing 'rubbish', cheap programs which attract large audiences - games shows, chat shows, soaps and 'infotainment‘. Other than frequency allocation, the government places few restrictions on broadcast media. Slide32: SOVIET MODEL A direct opposite of the American model developed in the Communist bloc. In the Soviet system, the state exercises much more direct control over ownership and content of programs than in Western countries. Communist countries such as North Korea, Vietnam and China still exert very tight control of the broadcast media. So do other totalitarian countries and some Muslim nations. Several African states still have top-down, authoritarian models as well. Broadcasting usually is non-commercial, is paid for from state funds, and is seen as an extension of government policy. Slide33: EUROPEAN PUBLIC SERVICE MODEL From the early stages the European model developed very differently from the American. The radio spectrum was seen as a scarce public resource that should be used for the benefit of the public as a whole, not the enrichment of and handful of business interests. The best example of this view can be seen in the history of British broadcasting. Slide34: When radio broadcasting began in Britain in 1922, Parliament was appalled by the way commercial radio was developing in the U.S., and recommended a very different approach. The result was the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of 1927, led by the BBC's first Director General, John Reith. The BBC developed the world's most widely copied model of public service radio broadcasting. It trained and influenced broadcasters not only in British colonies but elsewhere, and became the model for most Western European systems.Slide35: Reith saw radio as a means of improving society and programmed accordingly. The BBC did not carry advertising: it was supported by a tax on receivers. It provided top-quality news, discussions, education, culture, drama, and musical performances, all aimed at a highbrow or would-be high-brow audience. Reith insisted that radio should be publicly funded to avoid commercial dumbing-down, whilst remaining politically independent. Slide36: Reith wanted information, education and culture that had previously been accessible only to a minority of people to become an everyday part of British life. At a time most adult listeners had no formal education beyond the age of 14. So Reith sought to use the BBC for education and improvement. The BBC sponsored symphony orchestras, educational programs for schools, radio adaptations of famous plays. By the end of the 1930s, 75 per cent of British homes had a radio. Slide37: Reith then expanded radio broadcasting overseas, pioneering the BBC World Service on shortwave radio in 1932. It was also under Reith that the BBC inaugurated the first regular schedule of public television broadcasts in the world, in 1936. The TV service was suspended during World War Two. Radio developed in Europe on parallel lines to the BBC model, usually government- supported public service operations with a limited number of stations. The emphasis was on culture, education, and classical music. Slide38: Radio services were well established across Europe when World War II broke out. By 1945, however, hardly a single system survived intact. Only after the war did European radio slowly open up to more entertainment as it added channels. But it was still a government monopoly. This was challenged occasionally by pirate stations broadcasting popular music and commercials from offshore shipboard transmitters. After the war radio reconstruction in most European countries focused first on AM and long-wave radio services - and then on television. Slide39: FM was soon perceived as the only means of reducing serious overcrowding of the airwaves. Adding FM allowed systems to develop additional stations with a greater diversity of content and far more entertainment (typically popular music) formats. Many of the new stations were privately owned and funded by advertising. Listeners grew tired of paying radio license fees to support a government-controlled broadcast system, especially when the private sector offered popular programming that appealed more to their tastes. Slide40: Germany had to rebuild its broadcasting system in 1945, after its destruction during the war. The system was modeled on the BBC, but is decentralized. The most extreme examples of FM's growth took place in the 1970s in both France and Italy. A number of unlicensed, small, local Italian FM stations went on the air in late 1974 and into 1975. When an Italian court held that the state broadcasting authority did not have a monopoly on local radio, hundreds more followed in 1976. By mid-1978, some 2200 were on the air, providing Italians with the most radio stations per capita of any nation on earth. Stations programmed music and advertising, and often strongly political (both right and left) viewpoints. Slide41: Today, most European nations still have a dual system of public service and commercial radio broadcasting. Some public service stations, such as the BBC, still do not carry commercials, and are funded by solely by license fees. They now compete with separate commercial stations. In other European nations the services are funded by a combination of license fees and advertising. More recently, there has been an even larger expansion of the number of radio channels -- through cable systems and satellites. Even the terrestrial systems usually can be heard on the Internet. Slide42: PUBLIC SERVICE MEDIA SYSTEMS The European public service model is somewhere in between the commercial and the Soviet or authoritarian model. It varies from country to country, but typically the broadcast media enjoy a high degree of freedom -- but within a system of careful state licensing and regulation. National governments have little direct control over editorial content. They do, however, set a legislative framework within which the broadcasters must operate. Slide43: Broadcasters may be required to ensure 'impartiality' in their news coverage; they cannot be politically partisan. They may be required to ensure that certain kinds of material, such as violence or pornography, are not broadcast, especially when young children are likely to be watching. Typically, the requirements of the broadcast media will be much more stringent than those of newspapers. Unlike broadcasters, the press is not required to be impartial. Slide44: The main reason is that there is a limited number of broadcast frequencies available in any one country. In the case of newspapers, there are fewer controls because theoretically there can be any number of newspapers. New technologies, such as cable systems and the Internet, are undermining this argument.Slide45: The European public service model has been adopted by dozens of nations around the world -- particularly countries that once were part of the European colonial empires. Many former communist nations of Eastern Europe have adopted the European model, with more or less commercial emphasis. The United States promotes the commercial model as being independent of government control, as stipulated in the First Amendment to the Constitution. Slide46: Characteristics of Public Service Broadcasting UNIVERSAL ACCESS Broadcast services should be available throughout the country, not only in densely populated areas where most people live. Even remote villages or farms should be able to receive services that provide high quality, accurate news and diverse content. This is expensive. It costs as much to operate a transmitter in a remote location serving a few families as it does to have one that can serve millions of people in a city. Services to thinly populated areas must therefore be subsidized.Slide47: DIVERSITY AND PLURALITY Public service broadcasters must cater for all interests and tastes. They should stimulate, support and reflect the diversity of cultural activity, acting as a cultural voice for the nation. Programming should include a range of experiences, perspectives and arguments. This includes catering for minorities. In a purely commercial system channels catering to minority interests might well disappear. Slide48: IMPARTIALITY AND ACCURACY This implies detachment from vested interests and government. Broadcasting should offer a space for free expression and open debate. Everyone should have access to this space. The broadcaster should provide reliable and credible news and information for the public as a contribution to the national political debate.Slide49: CONCERN WITH QUALITY Competition should be in good programming rather than for numbers. This implies the use of broadcasting to raise the taste, standards and discrimination of listeners with high quality news, debate, and documentaries. There should be live music, original drama and entertainment, childrens' programmes, educational and interactive services, orchestras, concerts and minority language programs. Broadcasting should inform, educate and entertain, expanding people's horizons with new and innovative programming.Slide50: NATIONAL IDENTITY AND UNITY Broadcasting should stimulate, support and reflect a diversity of cultural activity, acting as a cultural voice for the nation. This implies a commitment to local programming, rather than cheap imports. Favoring local programming also provides training and support for local production skills and talent in music, drama, film, radio and television. Slide51: FUNDED BY LISTENERS AND VIEWERS Clearly all these high-minded objectives are not likely to be met by a broadcasting system that depends on advertising or sponsorship to survive. Such a system leads inevitably to lowest common denominator programming for mass audiences, and a drop in standards. Most public service broadcasters therefore depend largely on license fees paid by viewers. Slide52: In smaller countries, where the number of viewers is limited, the license fee income may be supplemented by state subsidies, or by a limited amount of advertising. The concept is that broadcasters should address audiences as citizens, not merely consumers. It means also that broadcasters are independent of pressure from commercial interests and, to a large extent, from pressure from politicians. You do not have the permission to view this presentation. In order to view it, please contact the author of the presentation.
Wireless avsar Download Post to : URL : Related Presentations : Share Add to Flag Embed Email Send to Blogs and Networks Add to Channel Uploaded from authorPOINTLite Insert YouTube videos in PowerPont slides with aS Desktop Copy embed code: (To copy code, click on the text box) Embed: URL: Thumbnail: WordPress Embed Customize Embed The presentation is successfully added In Your Favorites. Views: 1654 Category: Entertainment License: All Rights Reserved Like it (0) Dislike it (0) Added: November 07, 2007 This Presentation is Public Favorites: 1 Presentation Description No description available. Comments Posting comment... By: aditya.call (25 month(s) ago) Hi that wonderful ppt u hv.. wud appreciate if you could pls share with me.. it is required for me to clear one training.. m running out of time.. its Sunday mning.. wl hv to present it in even.. pls fwd it to my mail aditya.call@gmail.com.. Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close By: prashant72 (27 month(s) ago) hi plz forward these to me.... plz.. my mail id is prashant.meti72@gmail.com Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close By: hmpatel007 (39 month(s) ago) plz let me download this ppt...i am a student of clectronics and communication engg....this ppt will be much helpful for my personal learning... Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close Premium member Presentation Transcript The development of wireless and radio: The development of wireless and radioSlide2: The inventor of wireless is generally recognized to be Guglielmo Marconi, born at Bologna, Italy, in 1874. As a youth he took a keen interest in science and in 1895 he succeeded in sending wireless signals over a distance of one and a half miles -- the first practical system of wireless telegraphy. Wireless telegraphy did not involve transmitting speech or music. Slide3: Telegraph messages were sent by tapping out letters of the alphabet with a telegraph key. The telegraph changed the code into electrical impulses and transmitted them over telegraph wires or cables. Marconi's system replaced the wires and cables with radio waves, but used the same Morse code as the telegraph. Telegraph key: Telegraph keySlide5: It was called wireless because it was a telegraph system using radio waves instead of wires to connect sender and receiver. By Marconi’s time the telegraph had linked many parts of the world, but signals had to be carried though cables or wires. This was a problem for ships that needed to communicate with each other or with shore stations. Before the invention of wireless, communication at sea was limited to visual range, using flags and light signals. Slide6: The navies of the world seemed an obvious sponsor for Marconi's invention. Marconi first tried to interest the Italian navy, but Italy declined to support his work, and in 1896 Marconi took his apparatus to England. Britain had the world's largest empire, and to service it and guard it, it had the largest navy. Marconi demonstrated his system successfully in London and the British granted Marconi the world's first patent for a system of wireless telegraphy.Slide7: In 1899 Marconi established wireless communication between France and England across the English Channel. In 1900 he transmitted the first wireless signals across the Atlantic between England and Newfoundland, Canada, a distance of 2,100 miles. By 1910 wireless was in general use for ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communication. Slide8: A major disaster demonstrated the utility of wireless – the sinking of the ocean liner Titanic, in April, 1912. The Titanic was the world's largest and newest passenger liner. She was about 800 feet long (four city blocks) and had four huge funnels. She could carry 2500 passengers in cabins on 11 decks, and a crew of 860. On her maiden voyage from Britain to the New York, the Titanic hit an iceberg and sank. Of the 2,228 passengers and crew aboard, only 705 were saved. The Titanic: The TitanicSlide10: The Titanic disaster was a major spur to the development of wireless. At the time of her launch, the Titanic represented the "state of the art" in shipbuilding. She carried wireless equipment built by the Marconi Company. The ship's wireless had a range of over 400 miles under good conditions. On the night of the disaster the Titanic was trying to break the record for crossing the Atlantic. The sky was clear, the sea was calm. Wireless room aboard Titanic: Wireless room aboard TitanicSlide12: Before the collision, the Titanic received wireless messages from another ship in the vicinity warning of icebergs ahead. The captain ordered a change of course, but despite this, at 11:40 P.M., a lookout shouted "iceberg dead ahead!" over and over. The helmsman attempted to swerve aside, but it was too late. A sharp ice floe ripped open a 300-foot gash in the ship’s steel plating, flooding the watertight compartments. Just two hours later, the ship lurched to bottom, carrying with it 1,500 helpless passengers. Iceberg seen from Carpathia: Iceberg seen from CarpathiaSlide14: The Titanic was certified to carry more than 3,000 passengers and crew. It was thought to be unsinkable and the lifeboats had room for only 1,200 people. Not all the lifeboats it had could be launched, and those that were could barely hold the 705 survivors. Titanic sinks: Titanic sinksSlide17: Another passenger ship, the Californian, was just ten miles away when the Titanic struck the iceberg. Earlier in the evening, the Californian’s wireless operator had transmitted a message to ships in the area warning of the ice. He later turned on his wireless again but the operator on duty on the Titanic told the Californian to "shut up", as he was interfering with the Titanic's messages to a shore station. The Californian's operator switched off his equipment and went to bed – and missed the Titanic’s wireless SOS. Slide18: Some 60 miles away was another passenger liner, the Carpathia. The wireless operator heard the Titanic’s urgent SOS. Eight other ships also heard the SOS and were racing to the scene. The Capathia got there first, some four hours later, but found only 705 passengers huddled in lifeboats. All were rescued.Carpathia to the rescue: Carpathia to the rescueSlide20: The Titanic disaster shocked the world and emphasized the importance of wireless as an emergency communications medium -- but also as a means of transmitting news. Ships had begun installing wireless in the early 1900’s but used it mainly to was to send messages known as "MarconiGrams" to shore stations on behalf of wealthy passengers. The ships also received news reports by wireless which they used to print daily newspapers for passengers. Marconigram: MarconigramSlide22: The sinking of the Titanic was a huge, world-wide news story. Wireless communication between the rescuers and could be picked up by other ships, land stations and a growing army of radio amateurs. These messages were passed on to newspapers -- some of which also had their own wireless receivers. The drama was closely followed by millions of people around the world. Newspapers headlined the disaster story day after day. Their reports often noted that the news had been received "by wireless," to indicate how up-to-date the information was. The press coverage spurred other media to join the hysteria. There have been over sixty books, several movies, and now dozens of Web sites.Slide24: Investigations into the disaster led to laws that ships carrying passengers to foreign ports had to have a wireless communication system. The ships’ wireless rooms and shore stations had to be manned twenty-four hours a day. A separate frequency was set aside for distress calls -- and gave them absolute priority. Also part of the Titanic legacy are requirements for an adequate number of lifeboats, for lifeboat drills, and for escape-route diagrams. Slide25: Marconi recognized the need for operator training and established wireless schools throughout the world for operators. But Marconi saw no need for voice transmission by radio waves. He felt that Morse code was adequate for communication. He did not at first foresee that radio could become a medium for broadcasting -- the same signal sent to multiple receivers -- rather than point-to-point transmission. He did, however, become heavily involved in broadcasting (using voice) once the technology had been developed. Slide26: Marconi left the early experiments with wireless telephony to others, including North American inventors Reginald Aubrey Fessenden and later Lee De Forest. In December 1900, Fessenden, combined the technologies of wireless and the newly invented telephone, and transmitted 'words without wires' over a distance of about mile. It was the first time that speech had been transmitted by electromagnetic waves. Slide27: The Titanic jump-started the wireless, and eventually the radio and electronics industry. New technical developments, such as the invention of the vacuum tube, made it possible to send not only coded messages, but voice and music over the airwaves. Wireless now became a mass medium, and became known as radio. The first broadcast radio services began in Europe and North America in the early 1920s.Slide28: World War One spurred the development of wireless. Before that, the only communications from the battlefront was by wire telephone. From the air, the only solution had been observers in hot air balloons tethered with a telephone line to report enemy locations. Governments devoted huge resources to development of wireless for military purposes, including direct communication with airplanes. Slide29: On the battlefields of Europe, the military importance of radio was immediately apparent. On the British front lines, operators with portable transmitters proved invaluable, including sending warnings of poison gas attacks to the men to put their gas helmets on. During the war, the Germans used radio transmissions to help airships navigate to targets they wanted to bomb. The war also exposed thousands of service personnel to radio technology, and saw a few experiments with broadcasting entertainment to the troops. Once the war was over and restrictions on public use of radio were lifted, broadcasting began a period of explosive growth. Slide30: From the beginning, clear differences emerged on the role of broadcasting in society, how it should be financed and how it should be controlled. In the United States, the first commercial broadcast station, KDKA in Pittsburgh, began in 1920. Cities, churches, schools, and businesses in the U.S. started their own broadcast stations. Manufacturers of radio sets offered programming to encourage people to buy them. Soon businesses realized the potential of advertising to a mass audience over the airwaves. That quickly became the main source of revenue. From the beginning broadcasting in the United States was seen as a commercial venture. Slide31: AMERICAN MODEL This developed into what is known as the American or 'free market' model – the capitalist approach to media. In this model, the main purpose of broadcasting is to make money. To make money, broadcasters have to maximize their advertising revenue. To do that, they have to maximize their ratings. To do that, they have to give the public what they want. This is why the American broadcast media are often criticized by Europeans for producing 'rubbish', cheap programs which attract large audiences - games shows, chat shows, soaps and 'infotainment‘. Other than frequency allocation, the government places few restrictions on broadcast media. Slide32: SOVIET MODEL A direct opposite of the American model developed in the Communist bloc. In the Soviet system, the state exercises much more direct control over ownership and content of programs than in Western countries. Communist countries such as North Korea, Vietnam and China still exert very tight control of the broadcast media. So do other totalitarian countries and some Muslim nations. Several African states still have top-down, authoritarian models as well. Broadcasting usually is non-commercial, is paid for from state funds, and is seen as an extension of government policy. Slide33: EUROPEAN PUBLIC SERVICE MODEL From the early stages the European model developed very differently from the American. The radio spectrum was seen as a scarce public resource that should be used for the benefit of the public as a whole, not the enrichment of and handful of business interests. The best example of this view can be seen in the history of British broadcasting. Slide34: When radio broadcasting began in Britain in 1922, Parliament was appalled by the way commercial radio was developing in the U.S., and recommended a very different approach. The result was the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of 1927, led by the BBC's first Director General, John Reith. The BBC developed the world's most widely copied model of public service radio broadcasting. It trained and influenced broadcasters not only in British colonies but elsewhere, and became the model for most Western European systems.Slide35: Reith saw radio as a means of improving society and programmed accordingly. The BBC did not carry advertising: it was supported by a tax on receivers. It provided top-quality news, discussions, education, culture, drama, and musical performances, all aimed at a highbrow or would-be high-brow audience. Reith insisted that radio should be publicly funded to avoid commercial dumbing-down, whilst remaining politically independent. Slide36: Reith wanted information, education and culture that had previously been accessible only to a minority of people to become an everyday part of British life. At a time most adult listeners had no formal education beyond the age of 14. So Reith sought to use the BBC for education and improvement. The BBC sponsored symphony orchestras, educational programs for schools, radio adaptations of famous plays. By the end of the 1930s, 75 per cent of British homes had a radio. Slide37: Reith then expanded radio broadcasting overseas, pioneering the BBC World Service on shortwave radio in 1932. It was also under Reith that the BBC inaugurated the first regular schedule of public television broadcasts in the world, in 1936. The TV service was suspended during World War Two. Radio developed in Europe on parallel lines to the BBC model, usually government- supported public service operations with a limited number of stations. The emphasis was on culture, education, and classical music. Slide38: Radio services were well established across Europe when World War II broke out. By 1945, however, hardly a single system survived intact. Only after the war did European radio slowly open up to more entertainment as it added channels. But it was still a government monopoly. This was challenged occasionally by pirate stations broadcasting popular music and commercials from offshore shipboard transmitters. After the war radio reconstruction in most European countries focused first on AM and long-wave radio services - and then on television. Slide39: FM was soon perceived as the only means of reducing serious overcrowding of the airwaves. Adding FM allowed systems to develop additional stations with a greater diversity of content and far more entertainment (typically popular music) formats. Many of the new stations were privately owned and funded by advertising. Listeners grew tired of paying radio license fees to support a government-controlled broadcast system, especially when the private sector offered popular programming that appealed more to their tastes. Slide40: Germany had to rebuild its broadcasting system in 1945, after its destruction during the war. The system was modeled on the BBC, but is decentralized. The most extreme examples of FM's growth took place in the 1970s in both France and Italy. A number of unlicensed, small, local Italian FM stations went on the air in late 1974 and into 1975. When an Italian court held that the state broadcasting authority did not have a monopoly on local radio, hundreds more followed in 1976. By mid-1978, some 2200 were on the air, providing Italians with the most radio stations per capita of any nation on earth. Stations programmed music and advertising, and often strongly political (both right and left) viewpoints. Slide41: Today, most European nations still have a dual system of public service and commercial radio broadcasting. Some public service stations, such as the BBC, still do not carry commercials, and are funded by solely by license fees. They now compete with separate commercial stations. In other European nations the services are funded by a combination of license fees and advertising. More recently, there has been an even larger expansion of the number of radio channels -- through cable systems and satellites. Even the terrestrial systems usually can be heard on the Internet. Slide42: PUBLIC SERVICE MEDIA SYSTEMS The European public service model is somewhere in between the commercial and the Soviet or authoritarian model. It varies from country to country, but typically the broadcast media enjoy a high degree of freedom -- but within a system of careful state licensing and regulation. National governments have little direct control over editorial content. They do, however, set a legislative framework within which the broadcasters must operate. Slide43: Broadcasters may be required to ensure 'impartiality' in their news coverage; they cannot be politically partisan. They may be required to ensure that certain kinds of material, such as violence or pornography, are not broadcast, especially when young children are likely to be watching. Typically, the requirements of the broadcast media will be much more stringent than those of newspapers. Unlike broadcasters, the press is not required to be impartial. Slide44: The main reason is that there is a limited number of broadcast frequencies available in any one country. In the case of newspapers, there are fewer controls because theoretically there can be any number of newspapers. New technologies, such as cable systems and the Internet, are undermining this argument.Slide45: The European public service model has been adopted by dozens of nations around the world -- particularly countries that once were part of the European colonial empires. Many former communist nations of Eastern Europe have adopted the European model, with more or less commercial emphasis. The United States promotes the commercial model as being independent of government control, as stipulated in the First Amendment to the Constitution. Slide46: Characteristics of Public Service Broadcasting UNIVERSAL ACCESS Broadcast services should be available throughout the country, not only in densely populated areas where most people live. Even remote villages or farms should be able to receive services that provide high quality, accurate news and diverse content. This is expensive. It costs as much to operate a transmitter in a remote location serving a few families as it does to have one that can serve millions of people in a city. Services to thinly populated areas must therefore be subsidized.Slide47: DIVERSITY AND PLURALITY Public service broadcasters must cater for all interests and tastes. They should stimulate, support and reflect the diversity of cultural activity, acting as a cultural voice for the nation. Programming should include a range of experiences, perspectives and arguments. This includes catering for minorities. In a purely commercial system channels catering to minority interests might well disappear. Slide48: IMPARTIALITY AND ACCURACY This implies detachment from vested interests and government. Broadcasting should offer a space for free expression and open debate. Everyone should have access to this space. The broadcaster should provide reliable and credible news and information for the public as a contribution to the national political debate.Slide49: CONCERN WITH QUALITY Competition should be in good programming rather than for numbers. This implies the use of broadcasting to raise the taste, standards and discrimination of listeners with high quality news, debate, and documentaries. There should be live music, original drama and entertainment, childrens' programmes, educational and interactive services, orchestras, concerts and minority language programs. Broadcasting should inform, educate and entertain, expanding people's horizons with new and innovative programming.Slide50: NATIONAL IDENTITY AND UNITY Broadcasting should stimulate, support and reflect a diversity of cultural activity, acting as a cultural voice for the nation. This implies a commitment to local programming, rather than cheap imports. Favoring local programming also provides training and support for local production skills and talent in music, drama, film, radio and television. Slide51: FUNDED BY LISTENERS AND VIEWERS Clearly all these high-minded objectives are not likely to be met by a broadcasting system that depends on advertising or sponsorship to survive. Such a system leads inevitably to lowest common denominator programming for mass audiences, and a drop in standards. Most public service broadcasters therefore depend largely on license fees paid by viewers. Slide52: In smaller countries, where the number of viewers is limited, the license fee income may be supplemented by state subsidies, or by a limited amount of advertising. The concept is that broadcasters should address audiences as citizens, not merely consumers. It means also that broadcasters are independent of pressure from commercial interests and, to a large extent, from pressure from politicians.