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Perspectives in Psychology : 

1 Perspectives in Psychology By Mrs Masterson

Outline : 

2 Outline The philosophical origins of psychology Schools of thought in psychology Areas of psychology Psychological perspectives

Topics : 

3 Topics Philosophical perspectives Introspectionism and behaviourism European psychology Clinical psychology The cognitive revolution Ethics and methodology Areas of psychology Perspectives

Interesting human behaviour : 

4 Interesting human behaviour Since ancient times people have been fascinated by the human mind and behaviour

When did this interest start? : 

5 When did this interest start? The ancient Greeks were known to be interested in Memory Simonedes (500 BC) witnessed a building collapse at a banquet he had been in He used a ‘Method of Loci’ technique to help identify victims

Influential Philosophers : 

6 Influential Philosophers Philosophical background Descartes Dualism Locke’s empiricism Darwin’s Theory of evolution Mind and body separate Measurement + observation Adaptation

Descartes (1596-1650) : 

7 Descartes (1596-1650) Cartesian dualism - the mind and the body considered to be separate Mind centre of thought and consciousness Body physical and automatic actions Influence on Western medical thinking Animal/human distinction Animals instinctive vs. Human reasoning

Locke (1632 - 1704) : 

8 Locke (1632 - 1704) Empiricism only observable and measurable facts count as data Behaviourist outcome Associationism all learning based on associations complex chains of associations form from life experiences

Darwin (1859) : 

9 Darwin (1859) Theory of evolution organisms change through adaptation if adaptation improves chances of survival survival of the fittest Animal/human comparison humans part of the evolutionary continuum animal behaviour evolves into human behaviour?

Historical links : 

10 Historical links 1879 Present Descartes dualism Locke’s empiricism Darwin’s evolutionary theory Introspectionism Wundt, Ebbighaus & James Watson’s Behaviourism Freud’s psychoanalysis Piagetian cognitive development Clinical psychology European psychology Gestalt school Humanistic approach Classical + Operant conditioning Cognitive revolution Aversion therapy & behaviour modification Person centred therapy Tajfel- Social identity theory American approach

Introspectionism & behaviourism : 

11 Introspectionism & behaviourism Introspectionism involves analysing and reporting own experiences or that of highly trained assistants Wundt studied consciousness and social awareness James studied individual experience from memory to emotion Ebbinghause worked on human memory Watson challenged introspectionist approach in 1913 as non-scientific impossible to study mind due to lack of observable phenomena verification important Stimulus-response associations (see Locke) fitted modernist thinking of time Classical and Operant conditioning

Behaviourist ‘Black Box’ approach : 

12 Behaviourist ‘Black Box’ approach Stimulus Response Brain seen as a ‘black box’

European psychology : 

13 European psychology

Psychoanalysis : 

14 Psychoanalysis Developed by Sigmund Freud as a way to explain human psychological problems Based on a non-rational approach Identified the role of the unconscious mind in the control of human behaviour Developed the concept of dynamic forces of the id, ego and superego that control human behaviour Research based on Freud’s case studies using a phenomenological approach

Behaviour therapy : 

15 Behaviour therapy Dollard (1939) reconceptualised psychoanalysis using a behaviourist perspective Based therapy on behaviour conditioning Aversion therapy involves conditioned avoidance Utilises principles of classical conditioning developed by Pavlov Behaviour modification techniques utilise operant conditioning techniques Aim to model more appropriate behaviours based on Bandura’s work on imitation

Humanistic Psychology : 

16 Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers work was based on positive personal growth It used an holistic approach Developed the concept of self-actualisation to which personal growth is directed Abraham Maslow worked in the area of human motivation Saw self -actualisation as the ultimate goal of motivation in an hierarchy of social need

The cognitive revolution : 

17 The cognitive revolution Established to overcome the ‘black-box’ limitations of the Behaviourist approach Took psychology back to the study of the mind Laboratory based research using human participants Two limitations of the approach are; the exclusive of laboratory research Computer metaphor ignores social factors Other shifts from this approach have been interest in social cognition cognitive neuro-psychology animal cognition

‘Black-box’ revisited : 

18 ‘Black-box’ revisited 1 2 3 4 Mental processes Stimulus Response Trying to explain processes within the brain

Ethics and methodology : 

19 Ethics and methodology Growth of concern about ethical issues in recent years manipulative approach of experiments deception the norm human rights concerns more use of triangulation different methods same area Participants not subjects Growth of use of self-report techniques

Areas of Psychology : 

20 Areas of Psychology

Psychological perspectives : 

21 Psychological perspectives Perspectives and issues in psychology Free will & determinism Intentionality Reductionism and interactionism Nature/nurture debates Levels of analysis Nomothetic, Idiographic and Hermeneutic explanations

Free will and determinism : 

22 Free will and determinism The issue here is about the conflict between free choice and control How much behaviour is under an individual’s autonomous choice? How much is controlled by social norms and values?

Reductionism and interactionism : 

23 Reductionism and interactionism Reductionism is a special form of determinism Belief is that any event or observed phenomena can be understood by looking at its basic elements or parts Problem - is the sum of the parts equal to the observed phenomena? Behavioural phenomena can have emergent properties so that the output is more than the sum of the parts Interactionism is an alternative explanation

Levels of analysis : 

24 Levels of analysis Biological explanations Sociological explanations Genetics and evolutionary adaptions Emotional and physical reactions Habits and learned associations Physiological systems Acquired skills Cognitive processes Intentions and motives Interpersonal interaction Social cognition Social groups famiily etc.

Nature-nurture debates - 1 : 

25 Nature-nurture debates - 1

Nature-nurture debates - 2 : 

26 Nature-nurture debates - 2

Nomothetic, Idiographic and hermeneutic research : 

27 Nomothetic, Idiographic and hermeneutic research

Summary : 

28 Summary In this lecture we have explored the philosophical background to psychology examined areas of research that psychologists work examined some of the perspectives and issues in psychology looked at the way that psychology has developed as a discipline from its early beginnings considered the ethical and methodological issues

Associated Web sites : 

29 Associated Web sites Explore Perspectives of Psychology at: http://www.sccu.edu/programs/psych/amoebaweb.html http://www.alleydog.com http://www.psychwww.com http://www.yorku.ca/dept/psych/orgs/apa26/resource.htm