Models of Personality

Models of Personality : 

Models of Personality Prepared by: CARLO SARMIENTO RN

PERSONALITY : 

PERSONALITY is a collection of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns unique to a person that is consistent over time. The idea that we can understand ourselves and others by categorizing the ways in which we experience, respond, and behave toward the physical and social world has a long tradition.

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With the advent of psychology as an academic discipline, theories of personality and techniques for measuring personality characteristics and individual differences developed significantly No single model has been able to describe the totality of human personality. The inherent complexity of human nature, and the infinite diversity among individuals may indeed preclude such a possibility.

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Even so, those who work to advance our understanding of ourselves and others enable us to build bridges and overcome barriers between people with different personalities. Understanding and appreciating our differences allows us to become one human family, where each person can fulfill his or her own potential and contribute to the whole, according to their unique nature.

What is personality? : 

What is personality? In psychology, personality is a collection of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns unique to a person that is consistent over time. The word originates from the Latin persona, which means "mask," indicating that early theorists regarded the personality as the outward expression of the internal nature of human beings.

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Personality can also be distinguished from the related concept of temperament, which is the aspect of personality concerned specifically with emotional dispositions and reactions, or the mood pattern of a person.

Brief history of Personality Theory : 

Brief history of Personality Theory Greek philosopher/physician Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model, basing his four “types” on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed.

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Greek physician Galen expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humors): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, temperaments designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot-tempered). German philosopher Immanuel Kant popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of feelings and activity.

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The advent of the field of psychology led to more formalized categories and tests. Wilhelm Wundt proposed that the four temperaments fall along the axes of changeability and emotionality. As the field of psychology grew and matured, both the theoretical models of personality and the methods designed to assess personality differences have made significant advances.

A typology of personality models : 

A typology of personality models Modern personality models may generally be broken into three types: Factorial models, Typologies Circumplexes

Factorial models : 

Factorial models posit that there are dimensions along which human personality differs. The main purpose of a personality model is thus to define the dimensions of personality. The statistical technique of factor analysis is a primary tool of theorists composing factorial models. Such models arise directly from a classical individual differences approach to the study of human personality. The "Big Five" model is the best-known example of this type of theory.

Typologies or type models : 

Typologies or type models Arise naturally from some theories that posit "types" of people. For example, astrological signs represented a well-known, pre-scientific typological model. Typological models posit a relatively small number of modal types and possibly some interaction between the types. The Jungian typology implemented in the MBTI represents the typology approach

Circumplex models : 

Circumplex models may resemble factorial or type models, but further specify a relationship between the different types or factors. Typically, some types or factors are more related than others and can be presented on a polygon. Correlations of personality scores should resemble a simplex form, where opposing types have low correlation and close types have a high correlation. John L. Holland's RIASEC or "Holland Codes" is a typical example of this type of theory.

The Big Five Factors : 

The Big Five Factors Extroversion Extroversion (also sometimes "Extraversion") is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extroverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves. Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extroverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extrovert and prefers to be alone.

Agreeableness : 

Agreeableness Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others'. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy. Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.

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Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers

Conscientiousness : 

Conscientiousness Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as Need for Achievement (NAch). Unconscientiously people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy.

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The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring.

Neuroticism or (inversely) Emotional Stability : 

Neuroticism or (inversely) Emotional Stability Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

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At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extroversion domain.

Openness to Experience : 

Openness to Experience Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They tend to think and act in individualistic and nonconforming ways. People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.

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Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who are often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in different environments. The intellectual style of the open person may serve a professor well, but research has shown that closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work, sales, and a number of service occupations.

Weaknesses : 

Weaknesses There are several weaknesses to the Big Five. The first of these is that the five factors are not fully "orthogonal" to one another; that is, the five factors are not independent. Negative correlations often appear between Neuroticism and Extroversion, for instance, indicating that those who are more prone to experiencing negative emotions tend to be less talkative and outgoing. Another weakness is that the Big Five do not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel t neglects other personality traits, such as: Religiosity Manipulativeness Honesty Sexiness Thriftiness Conservativeness Masculinity/Femininity Snobbishness Sense of humor

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Correlations have been found between these factors and the Big Five, such as the well known inverse relationship between political conservatism and Openness, although variation in these traits is not entirely explained by the Five Factors themselves. Another weakness of the Big Five is that they rely on self report questionnaires to be measured; self report bias and falsification of responses is impossible to deal with completely. This becomes especially important when considering why scores may differ between individuals or groups of people - differences in scores may represent genuine underlying personality differences, or they may simply be an artifact of the way the subjects answered the questions

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The last weakness of the Big Five, and a criticism which has frequently been leveled at it, is that it is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. While this does not mean that these five factors don't exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.

Jungian typology : 

Jungian typology Carl Jung taught that the personality includes many archetypes, including the shadow, the anima and the animus. This is based on his theory that all people share a collective unconscious that consists of universal memories and images, which he called archetypes. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This model was later elaborated further by David Keirsey. The model begins by accepting Extroversion vs. Introversion as basic, and adding an additional three dimensions:

Extroverted or Introverted : 

Extroverted or Introverted This category deals with how we prefer to interact with the world and how we prefer to get our energy and stimulation.

Extroverted or Introverted : 

Extroverted or Introverted Extraverts are energized by other people and action. They are talkers, often thinking out loud, interrupting people at meetings, or bursting into a co-worker's office to ask an opinion, and then not really listening to it. Extraverts become drained when they have to spend too much time alone; they need other people to function. Introverts, on the other hand, get their energy from their own thoughts and ideas, rather than heated discussions. Introverts rarely speak up at large meetings, preferring listening to talking. Introverts need alone time, especially after spending a few hours with people.

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Introverts are outnumbered by extraverts by about three to one in America. Extraverts are often rewarded in school, by participating in class discussions, and at work, because they are popular and outgoing. Introverts, on the other hand, are often undervalued because they keep their best to themselves.

Sensor or iNtuitive : 

Sensor or iNtuitive This category deals with how we prefer to gather information about the world.

Sensor or iNtuitive : 

Sensor or iNtuitive Sensors prefer to use their five senses to gather information. Sensors are quite literal, preferring facts and details to interpretations. If a hard-core sensor asks what time it is, he or she expects to hear "11:07 a.m.," and not "a little after 11" or "about 11." About 70 percent of Americans are sensors. For iNtuitives, on the other hand, everything is relative. They aren't late unless the meeting has started without them. iNtuitives look at the grand scheme of things, trying to translate bits of information, through intuition, into possibilities, meanings, and relationships. Details and specifics irritate iNtuitives.

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iNtuitives see the forest; sensors see the trees. When working with sensors or iNtuitives, it is important to remember these differences. Sensors prefer to learn through sequential facts; iNtuitives through random leaps. The task- "Please sort through these surveys" - means something entirely different to sensors and iNtuitives.

Thinker or Feeler : 

Thinker or Feeler This category deals with how we make decisions.

Thinker or Feeler : 

Thinker or Feeler Thinkers base their decisions on objective values, and are often described as logical, detached, or analytical. Some thinkers are thought of as cold or uncaring because they would rather do what is right than what makes people happy. In contrast, feelers tend to make decisions based on what will create harmony. Feelers avoid conflict; and will overextend themselves to accommodate the needs of others. Feelers will always "put themselves in somebody else's shoes" and ask how people will be affected before making a decision.

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This is the only personality type category related to gender. About two-thirds of all males are thinkers, and the same proportion of females are feelers. There often are problems in the workplace for those who don't conform to their gender's preference. For example, a feeling man is labeled a "wimp." Much more negatively, a thinking woman is "unfeminine," she "has a chip on her shoulder" or much worse. Thankfully, nobody is 100 percent thinker or 100 percent feeler (as with the other personality types). Everyone, to some extent, cares, thinks, and feels, but final decisions are reached through very different routes, based on a person's true personality preference.

Judger or Perceiver : 

Judger or Perceiver This category deals with how we orient our lives. Judgers are structured, ordered, scheduled, and on-time. They are the list makers.

Judger or Perceiver : 

Judger or Perceiver Judgers wake up every morning with a definite plan for the day, and become very upset when the plan becomes unraveled. Even free time is scheduled. Perceivers, on the other hand, rely on creativity, spontaneity, and responsiveness, rather than a plan or list, to get them through the day. They burn the midnight oil to meet deadlines, although they usually meet them. Perceivers like to turn work into play, because if a task is not fun, they reason, it is probably not worth doing.

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Experts say that this personality type difference is the most significant source of tension in the workplace and in group work. Perceivers prefer to keep gathering information rather than to draw conclusions. Judgers prefer to make decisions, often ignoring new information that might change that decision. Hence, the conflict. The authors of the book contend that a good balance of judgers and perceivers are necessary for a well-functioning work group. Judgers need light-hearted perceivers to make them relax, and perceivers need structured judgers to keep things organized and reach closure on projects.

Circumplex models : 

Circumplex models Holland Codes represent a set of personality types described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated by psychologist John L. Holland.

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Holland's theory argued that "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both persons and work environments.

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In presenting his theory, Holland graphically represented the six types as arrayed on a hexagon. This graphic representation serves to describe the empirically determined correlations between the types. The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the more closely they are related. Taken together, the Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first letters: RIASEC. Realistic - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented Investigative - analytical, intellectual, scientific, explorative Artistic - creative, original, independent, chaotic Social - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing Enterprising - competitive environments, leadership, persuading Conventional - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

Do'er (Realistic) : 

Do'er (Realistic) Working with your hands, tools, machines, and things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical: Agriculture Information technology Architect Instructional technology Archaeology Martial arts Astronaut Mechanic/Automobiles Athlete Mechanical engineering Chef Paramedic Computer science Pharmacy Driver Physical therapy Electrical engineering Police Officer Engineer Soldier Firefighter Pilot Gardener Veterinarian

Thinker (Investigative) : 

Thinker (Investigative) Working with theory and information, analytical, intellectual, scientific: Actuary Computer science Economist Engineer Finance Lawyer Mathematics Pharmacy Physician/Medical school Professor (all fields) Psychologist Psychiatrist Science Statistics Surgeon

Creator (Artistic) : 

Creator (Artistic) Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic, creative: Actor/Performance Animation Art therapy Artist Author/ Poet Dance therapy Expressive therapy Graphic designer Library and information science[3] Music therapy Musician Painter

Helper (Social) : 

Helper (Social) Cooperative environments, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing: Art therapy Occupational Therapist Audiologist Speech-Language Pathologist Babysitter Trainer (business) (Industry) Caretaker Theology Counselor Teacher Dance therapy Social Work Education Psychologist Professor Instructional technology Martial arts Nutritionist Music therapy Physician Nurse

Persuader (Enterprising) : 

Persuader (Enterprising) Competitive environments, leading, persuading, selling, dominating, promoting, status: Administration Salesmen Academic administration Stockbroker Business/MBA Retail Communications Real Estate Insurance Public policy Investment Banker Public relations Journalism Publishing Law / Politics Public Health Marketing / Advertising Management Consultant Management

Organizer (Conventional) : 

Organizer (Conventional) Precise, perfect attention to detail, orderly, organizing, status: Accountant Technical writer Actuary Secretary Administration Retail Academic administration Receptionist Banking/ Investment bank Proofreader Business/MBA Payroll Clerk Instructional technology Copy Editing

Personality theories : 

Personality theories There are several theoretical perspectives on personality in psychology, which involve different ideas about the relationship between personality and other psychological constructs, as well as different theories about the way personality develops.

Behavioral-genetic theories : 

Behavioral-genetic theories Behaviorists explain personality in terms of reactions to external stimuli. This school of thought was initiated by B. F. Skinner. According to these theories, people's behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning. Some psychologists take a biological view of personality and research temperaments in children and heritability in adult twins, hoping is to find the genes underlying temperament. Individual differences in temperaments or manner of reacting to the environment emerge early in life and are an influence in later personality development.

Trait theories : 

Trait theories According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are "prominent aspects of personality that are exhibited in a wide range of important social and personal contexts." In other words, persons have certain characteristics which partly determine their behavior. According to the theory, a friendly person is likely to act in a friendly fashion in any situation because of the traits in his personality. One criticism of trait models of personality as a whole is that they lead professionals in clinical psychology and laypeople alike to accept classifications, or worse offer advice, based on a superficial analysis of a person's profile.

Social-cognitive theories : 

Social-cognitive theories In cognitivism behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g., expectations) about the world, and especially those about other people. Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested that the forces of memory and emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Social-cognitive theorists emphasize the situation the person is in and the person's expectations, habits, and belief system. This approach claims that the environment, cognitions, and a person's behavior all have an influence on each other in a complex pattern called reciprocal determinism, which shapes one's distinctive personality. We learn ways of reacting to situations in our environment in part because of rewards and punishment. However, once acquired, our habits, behaviors, and cognitions influence how we respond to others and to situations.

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A significant personality trait that illustrates reciprocal determinism is "self-efficacy," a sense of one's ability to achieve results and reach goals even in the face of overwhelming obstacles. Self-efficacy is acquired through four factors: having experiences in mastering new skills and overcoming obstacles having successful and competent role models in one's life receiving feedback and encouragement from others self awareness and management of one's inner state (thoughts and emotions).

Cultural theories : 

Cultural theories Many qualities that are treated as personality traits are actually influenced by one's culture. For example, in "cultures of honor" men are more likely to react aggressively to restore their sense of honor than are men from other cultures. In "individualistic cultures" people define themselves in different terms than those in "collectivist cultures", as they see their "selves" as more stable cross-situationally. In "monochronic cultures" individuals stress punctuality and doing things one at a time, whereas those from "polychronic cultures" value relationship above time schedule. The challenge for cultural theorists is to describe cultural influences on personality without stereotyping.

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Work by Geert Hofstede in over 64 countries has demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations, and that are very persistent across time. He identified five dimensions of culture in his study of national influences: Power Distance Individualism Masculinity versus Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term versus Short-term Orientation Hofstede's research revealed that country scores on the five dimensions were statistically correlated with a multitude of other data about the countries, pointing to some of the roots of [cultural differences.]

Psychoanalytic theories : 

Psychoanalytic theories Psychoanalytic theories, based on the work of Sigmund Freud, explain human behavior in terms of interaction between the various components of personality. Freud drew on the physics (thermodynamics) of his day to coin the term psychodynamics: based on the popular ideas of conversion of heat into mechanical energy and vice versa, he proposed the conversion of psychic energy into behavior. He broke the human personality down to three significant components: the ego, superego, and id. According to Freud, personality is shaped by the interactions of these three components.

Humanistic theories : 

Humanistic theories In humanistic psychology it is emphasized that people have free will and that they play an active role in determining how they behave. This approach places less emphasis on genes, past learning, or unconscious conflicts and dwells mostly on the unique human capacity to shape one's own future through freedom of choice and free will. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons instead of factors that determine behavior. This approach explores human potential and the strengths of the human being. Abraham Maslow, with his concept of peak experiences and self actualization, and Carl Rogers, who stressed the importance of unconditional positive regard, were proponents of this view. In addition, Rollo May and Viktor Frankl emphasized the search for meaning in life.

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