Assessing Reading Fluency as an SLD

Reading Fluency: Phonemic Awareness, Orthography, Rapid Naming & Prosody : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Reading Fluency: Phonemic Awareness, Orthography, Rapid Naming & Prosody Pamela E. Hook, Ph.D. phook@mghihp.edu and Christine Doyle, CCC-SLP cdoyle@mghihp.edu MGH Institute of Health Professions ASHA Convention Boston 2007

Components of the Reading Process : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Components of the Reading Process Word Identification Comprehension

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Types of reading disabilities DYSLEXIA (Decoding Deficits) LLD (Syntactic, Semantic, Pragmatic Deficits) ADHD (Metacognitive Deficits) Model by Carol Westby

Definitions : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Phoneme: the smallest unit that serves to distinguish one utterance from another in a language (as the /b/ of bat and the /m/ of mat) Phonemic Awareness: an awareness of the sound structure of one’s language at the single phoneme level – involves the ability to: segment, blend, and manipulate those sounds Definitions Phonics: a teaching approach that gives attention to the application of letter-sound correspondences for reading and spelling Orthography: The total writing system of a language – also refers to the letter patterns

Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling Phonological Awareness Rhyming Blending Segmenting Manipulating

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Word Awareness Rhyming Syllable Awareness Phonemic Awareness PhonologicalAwareness

Why is Phonemic Awareness Important? : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Why is Phonemic Awareness Important? A child’s level of phonemic awareness on entering school is widely held to be the strongest predictor of the success he or she will experience learning to read. (Adams and Bruck, 1995) However, without direct instructional support, phonemic awareness eludes roughly 25% of middle class first graders and substantially more of those who come from less literacy-rich backgrounds. (Adams, 1990)

The Problem of Coarticulation : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) The Problem of Coarticulation /d a g/ "dog" C. Haynes, 1997 (Thanks to A. Liberman.) Why is Phonemic Awareness Difficult for Some Children?

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) • Rhyming • Word Awareness • Syllable: blending & segmentation • Onset-rime: blending & segmentation • Phoneme: blending & segmenting • Phoneme: deletion & manipulation (Modified from O’Connor, 1998) Phonological Awareness Developmental Continuum

Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling Phonological Awareness Orthographic Processing Recognizing letter patterns that make up whole words or parts of words.

First Grader Across the Year (Adams, 1990) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) First Grader Across the Year (Adams, 1990)

Four Types of Words in English Orthography : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Regular for reading and spelling (follows unambiguous sound/symbol relationships) Regular for reading but not for spelling (unambiguous for reading but ambiguous for spelling) Four Types of Words in English Orthography Examples: dog, sprint Examples: boat (could be bote for spelling) sail (could be sale for spelling)

Four Types of Words in English Orthography (cont’d) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) 3. Rule/generalization based 4. Irregular (part of word does not follow sound/symbol correspondence relationships) Four Types of Words in English Orthography (cont’d) Examples: planning (follows one syllable doubling rule) stretch (follows the final –tch generalization) Examples: beauty (only eau is irregular) friend (only ie is irregular)

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What Do These Third Grade Students Know About Phonology and Orthography? Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston, 2000

Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Processes Involved in Word Identification/ Spelling Phonological Awareness Orthographic Processing Naming Speed (RAN) Development of automaticity and fluency

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) EASY DIFFICULT Double Deficit Hypothesis(Wolf, 1997, 2002)

Comprehension Skills : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Comprehension Skills Pamela Hook, 2000 Word Identification Skills

National Research Council Report (NRC), 1998 : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) National Research Council Report (NRC), 1998 Firm Conclusion from Recent Preventive Research—summarized by Torgesen, NEJC, 1999) 1. Instructional approaches that are more phonemically explicit have the strongest impact on the reading growth of children at-risk for reading disabilities. 2. Intensive preventive intervention can bring the average word reading skills of children at-risk for reading disabilities solidly into the average range. 3. In all studies reported thus far, a substantial proportion of at-risk children have remained relatively impaired in word reading ability following the intervention.

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Bridging between Phonemic Awareness and Phonics

Sound-Symbol Correspondence Is : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Sound-Symbol Correspondence Is • The ability to produce the sound corresponding to a letter or letter combination. (Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 1998)

Techniques for Teaching Sound-Symbol Correspondence : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Techniques for Teaching Sound-Symbol Correspondence Key Words Story/Picture Associations Mouth Placement Cues Multi-sensory Techniques

Bridging between Phonemic Awareness and Phonics : 

Bridging between Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Multi-sensory activities that incorporate both Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: Elkonin and ROAST

Say It And Move It-Elkonin TechniquePhonological Segmentation : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Say It And Move It-Elkonin TechniquePhonological Segmentation To train phonological segmentation and careful monitoring of sequence and exact sound/symbol correspondence for encoding and decoding. student has a series of markers (colored blocks, pennies, paper clips) teacher says a word student repeats the word student segments the word into sounds (phonemes) while moving one marker down to a segmented line or series of boxes for each sound in the word (consonant digraphs and vowel combinations are considered one sound while consonant blends are separated)—"silent e" can be coded with a special marker student can then write the word if appropriate

Segmentation (Elkonin) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Segmentation (Elkonin) “/s/ /i/ /t/” “sit”

Segmentation (Elkonin) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Segmentation (Elkonin) “/s/ /i/ /t/” “sit”

Elkonin Con’tDecoding : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Elkonin Con’tDecoding Teacher constructs word or word part with letter tiles or plastic letters student moves letter tiles or plastic letters while pronouncing the sound of each grapheme student blends sounds to decode the word or word part As students progress, it may be sufficient for them to touch each letter as they say the sound.

Bridge to Orthography : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Bridge to Orthography

The Six Syllable Types : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) The Six Syllable Types closed – notclosed in by a consonant – vowel makes its short sound open – noends in a vowel – vowel makes its long sound silent e – noteends in a vowel consonant e – vowel makes its long sound

The Six Syllable Types (cont’d) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) The Six Syllable Types (cont’d) vowel combination – nailthe two vowels together make a sound r controlled – birdcontains a vowel plus r – vowel sound is changed consonant-l-e – ta/bleat the end of a word

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closed c-le open vv silent e r cont

Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words Rules for Syllable Division—based in the phonological system Structural Analysis—based in the morphological system

Strategy for Reading Multisyllable Words : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Strategy for Reading Multisyllable Words Rules for Syllable Division Apply to two syllable and some three-syllable words (e.g. bas/ket; po/ta/to) There are Three Main Syllable Division Patterns VC/CV hel/met V/CV la/bor VC/V tim/id

Divide and Conquer : 

Divide and Conquer

Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words Rules for Syllable Division Structural Analysis Apply to three-syllable words

Definition of Structural Analysis : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Definition of Structural Analysis Structural Analysis is the study of the morphological structure of words that includes prefixes, stems and suffixes to enhance word identification and meaning.

Why is structural analysis important? : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Why is structural analysis important? allows students to recognize a finite number of word parts to aid in pronunciation of multi-syllabic words can be linked to vocabulary work involving stems and affixes

Divide These Words : 

Divide These Words understanding predictable understanding understanding transporting

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Bridging between Phonics and Automaticity/ Fluency

Automaticity/Fluency : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Automaticity/Fluency Automaticity = accuracy and rate   Single Word Level: effortless identification of words Fluency = automaticity (accuracy and rate) plus rhythm/prosody/ syntactic chunking for comprehension—developing an anticipatory set (movement through text) Text Level: coordination of automatic word recognition with appropriate phrasing and expression for comprehension

Development of Fluency : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Development of Fluency (accuracy and speed) Fluency (attention is free to comprehend) (appropriate phrasing and expression) Automaticity Decoding Skills BayState Readers, 2002

Assessment of Automaticity and Fluency in Reading : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Assessment of Automaticity and Fluency in Reading Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF) Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Gray Oral Reading Test-4 (GORT-4)

Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)—Real Words : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)—Real Words go dog in at am it so big be do box >>>> shop meat best then spell come start green want better learn >>>> chance instead farmer spring present strong huge believe office question contact >>>> >>>> initiate spurious particular emergency selection verbatim awkward wilderness grandiose ornament penitent 104 words total in four columns—45 seconds

Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)—NonWords : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)—NonWords ip ga co ta om ig ni pim wum lat baf >>>> barp stip plin frip poth vasp meest shlee guddy skree felly >>>> >>>> brinbert clabom drepnort shratted plofent smuncrit pelnador fornalask fermabalt crenidmoke emulbatate 63 words total in three columns—45 seconds

Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF) oratgetruncarisfunbluebiglikeback/ eachmuchthreezooapplefarflywould/ wayunderbirdfoundegglunchyardlive/ staygirlcakeofbutpetroomlightvery/ >>>> sullyseculargirddubcoerceguile/ epochprecludepulsearvernacularquaff/ Draw a line between words—3 minutes

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Developing Automaticity Single Word Level

Training the Orthographic Processor : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Training the Orthographic Processor Marking the Vowel in Closed and Magic-E Syllables If the word is a closed syllable, mark the vowel short: If the word is a magic-e syllable, mark the vowel long: Example: take hunt clasp sole ice set

Linking the Orthographic and Phonological Processors : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Linking the Orthographic and Phonological Processors Contrast Card: Practicing the sounds of ‘a’ in Closed and silent e syllables Say /a/ or /a/ for each word:

Sample Fischer Drill (Child reads words horizontally as quickly as possible.) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Sample Fischer Drill (Child reads words horizontally as quickly as possible.)

Sample S.P.I.R.E. Drill : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Sample S.P.I.R.E. Drill ?1999 Sheila Clark-Edmands; Blackline Master

Assessing Fluency : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Assessing Fluency • Measuring oral reading rate per minute. (Mercer & Campbell, 1998) • 1 Gr. = 30 - 50 wpm • 2 Gr. = 85 - 100 wpm • 3-8 Gr. = 100 - 180 wpm GORT-3 5th Gr. SS of 100 for fluency, 137-150 wpm (Torgeson, Rashotte & Alexander, 2001) • 9-12 Gr. = 200 wpm - Silent rates improve 10-20 wpm/year • Counting number and length of pauses. • Rating the prosodic quality. Mercer, C., and Campbell, K. 1998. Great Leaps Reading Program. Micanopy, FL: K-2 Diarmuid, Inc.

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Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Text Level Developing Fluency

General Strategies for Teaching Fluency : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) General Strategies for Teaching Fluency Systematic Practice: structured and sequential fluency practice at all levels. Selection of Text: reader should be able to decode text With 90% - 95% accuracy and not pause on too many words. (Adams, 1990)

General Strategies for Teaching Fluency (cont’d.) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Use a marker or pencil: reader should use a marker to aid their focus and in the flow of their reading. Silent Reading: prereading of text silently allows students to review text and practice any difficult words. Develop Anticipatory Set: set the stage by activating prior knowledge and reviewing what might be happening help students predict text content (Wood, Flowers, Grigorenko, 2001) General Strategies for Teaching Fluency (cont’d.)

Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction GuidedRepeated Reading -(NRP, 2000) Speeded Processing -(Breznitz, 2006)

Text-Level Repeated Reading : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Text-Level Repeated Reading Student reads aloud a passage several times until desired rate of reading is achieved (wpm). Student reads aloud another passage with same level of difficulty until desired rate is again achieved (wpm). 3. Results are graphed to document fluency gains and provide motivation.

Chunking/Scooping: Modifications of Repeated Readings : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Chunking/Scooping: Modifications of Repeated Readings “Chunking” or “scooping” under phrases is an additional clinical technique that can be employed with repeated readings—adds motor component.

Stone Fox Paragraph : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Stone Fox Paragraph With the heel of his moccasin Stone Fox drew a long line in the snow. Then he walked back over to his sled and pulled out his rifle.

Stone Fox Paragraph,Short Phrases : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Stone Fox Paragraph,Short Phrases

Stone Fox Paragraph,Combined Phrases : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Stone Fox Paragraph,Combined Phrases

Stone Fox Paragraph,Reduced Cueing : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Stone Fox Paragraph,Reduced Cueing With the heel of his moccasin Stone Fox drew a long line in the snow. Then he walked back over to his sled and pulled out his rifle. * * * * * * * * *

Phrasing through Signal Words : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Phrasing through Signal Words

Introductory activities : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Introductory activities Group signal words by function: e.g., places to go (tell where): over the hill around the house under the tree Then find these kinds of words in sentences, first through listening then reading. From: Based on Alice Ansara in Never Too Late to Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley

Listening Activities : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Listening Activities What are the signal words in these sentences telling you? Instead of buying a pickup truck, he bought a van. Since he was leaving for Peru, she decided to buy a ticket for Paris. I like Joan but I like Peter more. From: Based on Alice Ansara in Never Too Late to Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley

Listening Activities (cont.) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Listening Activities (cont.) Finish these phrases: He wanted to buy the Brooklyn Bridge, but . . . Without his help, . . . Throughout the night, . . . As a result of his decision, . . . From: Never Too Late to Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley

Objective #7—Signal Words in Sentences : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Objective #7—Signal Words in Sentences The boy skips in front of his home. 2. The pig drank the water after he woke up. 3. Jed mowed the lawn and planted the flowers. 4. Dan meets his sister next to the flagpole every day.

Computer Assisted Instruction and Fluency Intervention : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Computer Assisted Instruction and Fluency Intervention CAI is particularly well suited to deliver instruction in the area of fluency.

Sample CAI Programs : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Sample CAI Programs Guided Repeated Readings Read Naturally (focus on paragraph level fluency with comprehension—repeated oral reading)

Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction GuidedRepeated Reading -(NRP, 2000) Speeded Processing -(Breznitz, 2006)

Speeded Processing : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Speeded Processing Student reads a sentence or paragraph silently and answers a comprehension question to determine current rate where high accuracy in comprehension is achieved Text disappears at rate determined by practice selections 3. Results are monitored — speed at which text disappears increases or decreases based on student response

Sample CAI Programs (cont.) : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Sample CAI Programs (cont.) Speeded Processing Reading Acceleration (focus on sentence level fluency with comprehension—speeded text silent reading)—research version Reading Plus (focus on paragraph level fluency with comprehension—speeded text silent reading)

Theoretical Issues to consider: : 

Hanson Initiative for Language & Literacy (HILL) Theoretical Issues to consider: Single word vs. text level Sentence level vs. paragraph level Silent reading vs. oral reading

References : 

References Adams, M. J. (1990) Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Badian, N. A. (1995). Predicting reading ability over the long term: The changing roles of letter-naming, phonological awareness and orthographic processing. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-25. Bear, D., Invernizzi, M.,Templeton, S., and Johnston, F. (2000) Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall, Inc. Chall, J. S. (1983) Stages of Reading Development, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Clark-Edmands, S. (1998) Specialized Program Individualizing Reading Excellence (SPIRE). Kennebunk, ME: Progress Learning, Inc. Fischer, P. (1994) Speed Drills for Decoding Automaticity. Farmington, ME: Oxton House. Great Leaps, Diarmuid, Inc., Gainesville, FL

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Henry, M.K. (1995) WORDS: Integrated Decoding and Spelling Instruction Based on Word Origin and Word Structure. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed Inhot, C. (1998) Read Naturally. St. Paul, MN: Read Naturally, Inc. Meyer, M.S. & Felton, R. H. (1999). Repeated reading to enhance fluency: Old approaches and new directions. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 283-306. Neuhaus Education Center, Reading Readiness Skills, Practices for Developing Accuracy and Fluency—home practice program Steere, A., Peck, C. & Kahn, L. (1988) Solving Language Difficulties. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service. Tuley, A. (1998). Never Too Late to Read: Language Skills for the Adolescent with Dyslexia. Baltimore, MD: York Press. Vaccariello, C. A. (1999) Tic-Tac-Read & Match (Books 1 and 2). Moline, IL: LinguiSystems Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. (1999). The “Double-Deficit Hypothesis” for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91 (3), 1-24.