Identifying Myriapoda

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IDENTIFYING MYRIAPODA Dr. Vinod Khanna, Zoological Survey of India, Northern Regional Station Dehra Dun

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Myriapods are terrestrial arthropods They have fewer than ten to nearly 200 pairs of appendages; They range in size from nearly microscopic to 30 cm in length. They form an important group of soil animals comprising centipedes and millipedes, which occur in association with soil mites, termites, isopods, earthworms, pseudoscorpions, cockroaches, nematodes and molluscs and can be found in soils, in leaf litters, or under stones and wood. Most Myriapods live in humid environments, or near the moist surroundings, although excessive moisture may lead them to desiccation and death due to osmosis

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MYRIAPODA ( Myriad means Countless; pedes means feet) Superclass Myriapoda is divided into 4 classes Chilopoda( Opisthogoneate): One pair of leg per segment, flattened body divided into head and trunk ;15-171 body segments; all with ocelii except Scutigeromorpha; antennae long ; commonly called Centipedes Diplopoda( Progoneate): Two pair of legs per segment; 5 to over 100 pairs of legs, commonly called Millipedes Pauropoda(Progoneate): Minute arthropods about 1/20th of an inch; no eyes; 9-11 pairs of legs Symphyla(Progoneate): Tiny arthropods, 2-9 mm long, 12 pair of legs

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Diplopoda (Millipedes) Terrestrial,Tracheate,antennate,mandibulate, progoneate,oviparous and anamorphic arthropods , bearing 8 jointed antennae, fused maxillae with a pair of functional mandibles. Diplopoda means ‘double footed’ i.e. most of the segments in these animals are provided with two pairs of legs, a condition believed to have arisen by the confluence of two adjacent tergal segments during the process of evolution, in relation to their burrowing habits, as the pushing force is more efficiently transmitted to the pushing surface when alternate segmental joints are made rigid and incompressible. The power for this pushing is generated by the legs . Last segment devoid of legs but ends with a Telson.

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FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS: Like earthworms they ingest soil followed by defecation, disintegrate humus and decompose leaf litter in agriculture fields. Thereby increasing the fertility of farm lands by returning the nitrogen contents back to soil. They are also called “macro-degraders”. Are herbivorous and sarcophagus. detrivorouos and prefer humus and the rotting substances in soil than that of living plant tissues The use of farmland manure in humid conditions or growing some humus producing crops greatly increase the population of millipedes in the soil. The millipedes cause damage to crop only under forced condition of drought, therefore, known as secondary pests. They are not a recognized pests Diplopoda (Millipedes): Contd.

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Identification: Majority of diplopods are included in the subclass Chilognatha and their integument is hard and horny. It is almost impossible to identify the species of many millipedes. The Diplopod taxonomy is a fluid science . Identification is based upon minute characteristics. The higher taxa (subfamilies and orders) are distinguished primarily by aspects of the exoskeleton, the number of legs and segments, the profile and general body form, the configuration of the head, and the presence or absence, and position when present, of the sperm transfer or copulatory appendages in males. Some millipedes exhibit “aposometic” (i.e warning colors to announce defensive secretions) while others are “bioluminescent”, the millipedes otherwise are harmless as they do not have structures to bite, pinch or sting.

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Millipedes are largely mesophyllic and hygrophyllic hence their taxonomic richness, diversity and life forms are restricted to tropical and sub tropical regions. Being extremely slow in their movements and cryptic in habit these animals have limited power of dispersal. Their dispersal is again very slow on account of their long life cycles and large number of stadia with frequent moults. This results in higher degree of endemism and speciation. Diplopoda is one of the largest class of the animal kingdom with almost 80,000 known species world over.

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11 Orders, 19 families ,100-120 genera and 500 species are reported from India 1.Sphaerotheriidae 2.Glomeridae 3.Strongylosomidae 4.Paradoxosomatidae 5. Vanhoeffidae 6. Cryptodesmidae 7. Camballidae 8.Harpagophoridae 9.Spirobolidae 10.Trigoniulidae 12.Pachybolidae 13.Harpagophoridae the best represented and studied are Harpagophoridae and Paradoxosomatidae followed by Sphaerotheriidae and Spirobolidae A large number of species (93 out of 162) have been recorded from South India, while the records are rather poor from Darjeeling, Sikkim, Assam and Meghalaya.

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Polyxenidae Platydesmidae Polydesmidae Spirobolidae Spirobolidae Camballidae Rhinocricidae Hirodosomidae Platydesmidae Some Millipedes

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Chilopoda: Centipedes have numerous body segments, with one pair of legs per segment. The centipedes exhibit two basic body forms and lack the great array of ornamentations that exists in Diplopoda. They are not as diverse and speciose a taxon as Diplopods, comprising five living orders, 15 familes and over 3000 described species. 1. Scutigeromorpha 2. Lithobiomorpha 3. Craterostigmomorpha (Not occurring in India) 4. Scolopendromorpha 5. Geophilomorpha

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Geophilomorpha:They have 31 to 177 pairs of legs, 14 segments in the antennae, and a spiracle on every segment except the first and last. Eyes are always absent and head lenticular in shape.There are 180 genera and 1100 described species Scolopendromorpha:have 21 (23, in one Genus Scolopendropsis only) pair of legs and 17 – 30 antennal segments. This order contains the most recognized centipedes of the genus Scolopendra.and includes includes the largest species S. gigantea that can be about 30 cm (12 inches) in length.Two subfamilies with ocelli (Scolopendridae) and without ocelli (Cryptopidae) Craterostigmomorpha:There is only one genus (Craterostigma) in this order that only occurs in Australia and which appears to represent a halfway stage between the Scolopendrids and the Lithobids. They have 15 pairs of legs and only 7 sets of spiracles.(Not represented in India)

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Lithobiomorpha:This relatively successful group of medium sized to smallish Centipedes found commonly in temperate as well as tropical areas. They have 20 - 50 antennal segments, 15 pairs of legs and only 6 or 7 pairs of spiracles.The Lithobid possess ocelli but a few species are cave dwellers.They have two familes distinguished by presence of setae alone on legs ( Henicopidae) and or spines/spurs plus setae (Lithobiidae) There are 95 genera with over 1500 described species. Scutigeromorpha:These are all fast moving species that have 15 pairs of long legs and spiracles on the first 7 segments only. They are the only group of Centipedes to have compound eyes. They bare anmorphic.Only one species Scutigera coleopterata is known from India.Atomizing their legs is the method of their defense.

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Centipedes are quite common invertebrate animals which are found in soil, litter, underneath stones, bark and sometimes even found on walls in caves or homes or on top of roofs. Scolopendrid centipedes are found across all climates, but the giants are only found in the tropics and warmer temperate regions. They inhabit deserts, forests, mountains, woodland, limestone caves, etc.... Species from temperate regions are usually of moderate size (1cm to 10cm)=(1/2" to 4") in length Habits and Habitats of Centipedes but many tropical species of the order Scolopendromorpha are large and can grow up to (23cm to 28cm)=(9" to 11"). They are Solitary and are nocturnal. During the day they can be found in damp, dark places (ex. underneath stones) When the weather is too wet or too dry they seek other locations, including the insides of homes.

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There are approximately 3000 known species of Centipedes.  The eyes are usually simple, though one group has compound eyes.  Centipedes are predators. Gait is a wriggling running motion. Some species of Scutigeromorpha are seen actively at times in daylight as well.

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Centipedes are tracheate arthropods, breathing through spiracles. They have no waxy waterproofing layer on their cuticle, hence they tend to remain near damp or moist situations, in soil and humus and beneath stones, bark, and logs. , and are generally found in leaf litter in woods and forests or in rotting timber. Many species are cavernicolous (i.e. live in caves). Tribe Otostigmini

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The body segments in centipedes are flattened Centipedes generally have a single claw at the end of each leg which they walk or run on (i.e. they are digitigrade), except the fast moving Scutigera which have a multi-articulate foot with numerous hairs to help them get a better grip on the ground (i.e. they are plantigrade). Claw

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Food and Feeding: The larger Sclolopendra may take small vertebrates including Mammals, Birds and Reptiles. Normally it feeds on Termites, Cockroaches, Earthworms, soil mites etc. While millipedes are harmful to the crops , the centipedes are beneficial since they are predators on many species of pests of crops. They are also a known great turners of the farm soil as they ingest agriculture wastes, regurgitate it and return the nitrogenous contents back to soil along with its faecal matter.

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The body of a Scolopendrid centipede can easily be divided into two sections, The head and the trunk. The head contains a head plate (cephalic plate) with or without ocelli, 2 antennae and the poison claws (maxillipeds) which wrap forward under the head, but are in fact part of the 1st tergite of the trunk. The legs of the 1st trunk segment are modified to form the poison claws which are used to seize prey. The remaining segments of the trunk each hold a pair of legs, the last pair (ultimate legs) are larger and pointing backwards, these ultimate legs function as pincers or have been adapted for stridulation (Alipes sp.). Morphology

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Prefemoral Spines Anal Legs Lateral Margins Antennomeres

Key to the identification of Scolopendrid Centipedes : 

Key to the identification of Scolopendrid Centipedes 1. Ocelli absent ,with 23 pair of legs and pedal segments. Family Scolopocryptopidae Ocelli absent or present with 21 or 23 pair of legs and pedal segments ….….2…….. 2. Ocelli Present; tarsi of legs two jointed……Family Scolopendridae: 3 Ocelli absent; tarsi of legs single jointed….Family. Cryptopidae Spiracles operculate , with tripartite valves ……………...4 Spiracles not operculate ,without valvular partitions …..14…. 4. Posterior margin of cephalic plate abutting tergite 1 along its entire width ,antennae emerge from the anterior of the cephalic plate, parallel to each other ………………………………………………………Genus Notiasemus (not an Indian Genus) Posterior margin of cephalic plate not abutting tergite 1 along its entire width ,antennae emerge angled laterally ……………………………………………………6…

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6. Antennae very short , not longer then tergite 1 ,coxopleural process without coxopleural spines …………………………………………Genus Asanada Antennae long, reaching beyond tergite 2 coxopleural process with coxopleural spines ………………………………………………………… .…….…….7……. With 23 pair of walking legs. ……………………..Genus Scolopendropsis With 21 pair of walking legs………………………………….…............…8…………… 8. 1st tarsus shorter then 2nd tarsus most noticeable at legs of tergite 17 - tergite 20 ………………………………………………………………Genus Rhoda…. 1st tarsus mostly longer then 2nd tarsus, rarely equal …………..…….9…. All legs without tarsal spurs ,spiracles valves undivided ………….……10.. Most legs with tarsal spurs ,spiracles valves divided ……………...……13... 10. Spiracles mostly covered by pleural valves ,distribution New Caledonia …………………………………………….......……Genus Campylostigmus…… Spiracles not covered by pleural valves …………………………………..11….

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11. Coxopleural process without coxopleural spines or rarely with 1 spine basal plates noticeable ……………………..………..Genus Cormocephalus Coxopleural process with clearly coxopleural spines without basal plates..12… Coxopleural process with spines: long, thin multiple pointed coxopleural spines …………………………………………………….……Genus Hemiscolopendra Coxopleural process with spines: short, conical 1 pointed coxopleural spines ……………………………………………….…………Genus Psiloscolopendra

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18. Maxillipeds without inner process ,2nd mandible with mostly 2rarely 1 side-claw ,4 (rarely 3) smooth antennomere ..Genus Ethmostigmus Maxillipeds with inner process ,2nd mandible with 1 side-claw,3 (rarely 4 smooth antennomere ……………………………………………………………….19….. 19. 1st tarsus ultimate legs shaped normal ,prefemur ultimate legs with or withoutPrefemoral spine ………………………………………………….Genus Rhysida 1st tarsus ultimate legs very small and positioned dorsal ,prefemur ultimate legs with Prefemoral spine and small spines at base of Prefemoral spine ……………………………………………………………………….Genus Alluropus (not an Indian genus)

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T 102 species known from India are distributed in the following hierarchy of the order Scolopendromorpha. Family 1. Scolopendridae (95 species), Subfamily: 1. Scolopendrinae (38 ssp.) Tribe Asanadini (8 spp.) Tribe Scolopendrini (30 spp) and Subfamily: 2. Otostigminae (57 spp.) 3. Tribe Otostgimini (57 spp.) and Family 2. Cryptopidae (7 species) Subfamily 1. Cryptopinae (6 spp.) Subfamily 2. Scolopocryptopinae (1 sp.) Trends in Distribution of the Indian species of the Scolopendrid centipedes ___________________________________________

Housing and rearing Centipedes : 

Housing and rearing Centipedes Centipedes have flexible pleural zones, between the hard sternite and tergite. This way they can squeeze underneath rocks or logs to hide or crawl into crevices in nature. Keep this in mind when choosing the right enclosure to house your pet-Scolopendrid. They can easily crawl trough a small air hole, or a lid that's not closed fairly. They are true escape artist and while you're sleeping they have plenty of time to examine their new houses on any opportunities to escape.

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A general rule for the minimum cage size for an adult pet-Scolopendrid are: Length => 2 x the body length of the Scolopendrid. Width => 1 x the body length of the Scolopendrid. Height => 1 x the body length of the Scolopendrid + substrate height. (to prevent them to reach the top of the enclosure)Smaller specie or young adolescent ones can be kept in smaller round enclosures. A diameter of 2 x the body length of the Scolopendrid is enough. It's easier this way for the young or smaller ones to catch prey. Smaller species or young adolescent ones can be kept in smaller round enclosures.A diameter of 2 x the body length of the Scolopendrid is enough. It's easier this way for the young or smaller ones to catch prey.

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Hiding spots should be big enough for the Scolopendrid to make a burrow underneath. I use limestone mixed with soil as substrate for desert species . Rainforest species is kept on a mix of soil and sand. Some flat rocks, stones, logs, cork bark are great hiding spots for your pet. It's also recommendable to provide a small water dish so they'll have access to drinking water anytime. You can decorate your tank with some leaves, moss or plants,... but the Scolopendrid won't mind if you don't.   Try to keep the enclosure clean and get rid of feeding-leftovers a.s.a.p.. Keep small groups of woodlice (Crustacean) in the enclosures to clean up the the substrate, larger species of Scolopendrid won't be interested in them as food.

FEEDING CENTIPEDES IN CAPTIVITY : 

FEEDING CENTIPEDES IN CAPTIVITY Centipedes in captivity can be fed live or dead food. Scolopendrid are active nocturnal predators but sometimes also scavenge on corpses. Their food can consist of small or large insects, small rodents or reptiles. In captivity the most common food used are roaches, crickets, grasshoppers and for the larger species sometimes baby mice (pinkies). Alternatives can be earthworms, mealworms, bacon, beef, banana, mango, etc.... but these shouldn't be the main dish of the centipedes meal. Cockroaches Meat Beetle Grubs Crickets

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Scolopendrid aren't sensitive to an irregular feeding schedule or of the quantities they'll get. Plenty of times overfeeding causes more trouble than underfeeding Left over crickets or decomposing food can seriously harm your pet Scolopendrid Feed larger centipedes 1 large grasshopper or roach every week 2 large crickets every week To smaller centipedes feed: 2 medium sized crickets every week. Once a month feed an alternative feeder insect or meat/fruit etc. Very young instars (adolescent < 5cm - 2")are best fed dead crickets every 3 days. If there are still feeder-insects running around the centipedes enclosure after 2 days the centipede can be overfed or is preparing for an upcoming molt. Advisable to remove the left-overs and don't feed the centipede for 1 or 2 weeks. Don't feed any live rodents to my pet-Scolopendrid, although their famed ability to eat mice, it's still risk full and not necessary as they also take on dead meat.

Identifying Sexes : 

Identifying Sexes Sexing life centipedes is not easy, there are no clear signs on the overall look of centipedes to determine their gender. Genitals are situated inside the last segment underneath the ultimate legs. These genitals usually come out upon the centipedes death. Some external differences can be the shape of terminal legs (for example Sc.morsitans males have ridges on the prefemur, femur and tibia) or the porosity of the ultimate legs (for example male Sc.dalmatica) Other external differences can be a slightly different coloration. Also it's common that females grow bigger and fatter then males. Males and females of Sc.morsitans attempting to mate in captivity

Mating : 

Mating When putting 2 Scolopendrids together for mating attempts both specimen should be really well fed and be placed in enclosures with enough space for the animals to walk/run in and with plenty of hiding places. When the couple doesn't seem to be interested in each other or they start to display aggressive behaviour it's best to separate them and try again next time or with other specimen. When male and female are ready to mate the female will let the male approach her. Both female and male will be tapping around intensively with their antennae and try to make contact with each other. After the first contact has been made, the males usually approaches the female backwards which involves getting their terminal legs tangled and a spermaphore being transferred. An other observed behaviour is that the males building a sperm web where he lays down a spermaphore for the female to pick up either with her terminal legs or with her mouthparts first.

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Breeding: Internal breeding in centipedes does not seem to take place. The Males spin a small web onto which they deposit a spermatophore for the females to take up while accidentally passing over it. Only sometimes there is a courtship dance. Once inseminated the females carry excessive quantity of spermatophores sufficient for their life their life time, as they have been observed to produce offspring's repeatedly in captivity. Their breeding experiments in captivity have been failure primarily because of their atypical pattern of reproduction, solitary occurrence and lastly because of high degree of cannibalism in them .

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Chilopods are oviparous. The females exhibit a tremendous amount of parental care, in as much as they guard their young ones . The mother centipede lays eggs singly or in clusters of 15 to 35, holds them together in a sticky solution within the brood space enclosed by the body, which is curled up in spiral, thereby, preventing and guarding their clusters from coming in contact with the ground. However, if the brooding females are disturbed they react sharply by devouring the brood, occasionally abandoning it. The centipedes may take several years to reach sexual maturity. They have a reported life time of 7-8 years. Parental Care in Centipedes

Raising Centipedes : 

Raising Centipedes Eggs are slightly flattened Embryos shows no segments Time span: Embryonic stadium = approx 1 - 1,5 month. Adolescent stadium = approx 1 - 1,5 month. Immature stage (free living) = after 1 or 2 weeks in the 3rd adolescent stage. The instars will become darker colored and the head plate become a different colour to the body. They leave the mother at the end of the 3rd adolescent stage. it can take approx 2 to 4 years to become a sexually mature adult. Conclusion: • From eggs to free living adolescents, can take 3 to 4 months. The period between free living immature and sexually mature adults can vary depending on the climate, food, humidity, temperature.Lifespan is different within species, after becoming adult some species can live up to 2 years while others can live for more than 7 years. • Free living immixtures are often called "plings" or "pedelings" ( a common name in the pet-keeping scene for the different instars, meaning the centipede isn't mature yet.)

Advice and tips: : 

Advice and tips: During the egg stage Keep in mind! 50% of females in captivity eat the eggs, no matter what you do! Try to keep disturbance to a minimum when you have a female on eggs. Don't let the temperature or humidity rise or fall down during the 3-4 month period. Don't put feeder insects in the container for 3 month. If necessary you can hand feed the mother pre-killed food or raw meat, if for example, when the female looks very thin During the adolescent stage If the instars reached this stage, the chance of females eating their young is still 5%! Still keep the disturbance to a minimum. During the last adolescent stage When the instars have gained colour and have grown it's time to separate them from the mother.They can be housed separately or in small groups from now on. Feed them prekilled crickets the first 2 weeks. Immature stage From this stage on they can be fed living prey.These are just tips and advice based on experiences and studies There are no guarantees that this is the best or only way to raise centipedes.

Moltings : 

Moltings The skin of centipedes (exoskeleton) is mostly composed of chitin, a non-living layer, which does not grow. So if centipedes want to grow, they need to shed (replace the exoskeleton) known as molting or ecdysis. The actual shedding process can take a half hour or up to 2 hours. Sequence shown here in the molting process of a Cormocephalus sp. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Young instars do molt approx. every 2 or 3 months, Full-grown adults only once or twice a year. Adults can shed for regenerating lost body parts (such as antennae, legs, ultimate legs When a centipede is about to molt you can notice the old exoskeleton getting loose, the centipede is getting a dull color (starts at the ultimate legs) and won't eat at this time. (best to avoid having live-food with the centipede at this moment,... as they could damage the centipede when he's molting During the molting process the new exoskeleton is still very soft and flexible, it can take up to 2 days before the new skin is fully hardened. Centipedes usually eat their shredded skin right after they molted, to regain strength. Premolt Hardening up Shedded skin Regenerated Antennomeres

Diseases : 

Diseases Not much is known about diseases on Scolopendrid centipedes, usually when kept as pets, Scolopendrids die of old age. But some parasites can weaken their host and the infected Scolopendrid should be kept in quarantine*.Mites / Parasites Like many other arthropods, centipedes are frequently found covered with mites. Tyroglyphidae are mites who are found on most ground-living arthropods, such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes. These are not harmful for the centipede as they don't have mouthparts and won't be eating of their host. A variety of Endoparasites are found on centipedes and can be harmful to pet-Scolopendrids like: Nematoda, Nematomorpha, Diptera, Hymenoptera.   Hypoaspis mites can be used to get rid of the unwanted mites ! Foot-rot / black fungus Usually this fungus infection (? Mycosis fungoides ?) is caused by keeping the Scolopendrid too long in wet-conditions. The Scolopendrids start to show black spots, mainly on legs, antennae segments. Sometimes total segments of legs or antennae will disappear caused by Fungi. Mites Infected Nematodes infected Fungus Attacked

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Dehydration Not a disease, but sometimes also the cause of death with pet-Scolopendrids is dehydration, centipedes are Quarantine: Use an empty, dry, but well ventilated plastic container with some paper towels as substrate, place a waterdish so the Scolopendrid won't dehydrated.Keep the Scolopendrid for a week (or more) in this quarantine-container until you see his condition is getting better. Fungal Attacked

Handling : 

Handling Toxicology Handling of Scolopendrids with your bare hands is not recommended !!! All Centipedes are venomous and should never be handled bare-handed unless necessary. In general centipede bites are not considered life threatening to humans, but every individual can respond different to the effects of the venom ! Centipedes bites are painful, depending on the size of the Scolopendrid and the amount of injected venom, Indications : Localized pain, swelling, irritation, inflammation. The pain can last from 1 minute to 4h. or longer. Swellings can last for 4 days ! Centipede venom contains: Both serotonin and histamine, furthermore, the presence of several protease-activities. LD50 : Lethal Dose for 50% of subjects

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POISON APPARATUS : Centipedes are uniramian, antennate and mandibulate arthropods . The appendages of the first body segment have been modified to form large, poisonous fangs that are used to capture living preys during active predation and contain venom glands. The piercing mandibles have a fine aperture at the tip of the fangs, and at the base is the poison gland. The animal captures the prey. inoculates poison and apparently immobilizes it and devours it subsequently. Medical Importance: Despite the fact that no centipede shows real danger for human beings, the bite of a large centipede such as a Sclolopendra, however, can be painful to an adult and dangerous to a small child. Even death has been reported in infants. Poison Claw Poison Gland Poison aperture Ist Pair of leg modified into poison fangs

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The centipede bite may cause Oedaema, Gangrene , Lymphangites with inflammation of skin and subcutaneous tissues and Ulceration and also in most cases a localized necrosis takes place. Effect of Bite: Bite Gangrene area

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First Aid and Medical Aid No vaccine or anti-serum against their venom is available, FIRST AID: application of tincture iodine or rubbing in of the crystals of Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or liquid ammonia, or dressings with hydrogen per-oxide and fomentation hot compression, finds mention in the records as a first aid. MEDICAL AID: Since local infection associated with bite is not uncommon the treatment should also include administering anti-tetanus serum (ATS or TTS). If first aid is not given immediately a gangrenous sloughing may start.. There has been references of administering high dosage of Penicillin mentioned in the medical journals.

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LARGEST CENTIPEDE IN INDIA Scolopendra hardwickei which is about 145-160 mm and is common in Deccan and Andamans. Khanna (2006) recently recorded Scolopendra gigantea ( 270mm) from Raigarh, Maharashtra. While Largest known Millipede is Archispirostreptus (Spirostreptidae) 30 cms ( 1 ft.)

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Some Interesting facts about the Scolopendrid centipedes: Vernacular names: Kankhajura and Kantar in Uttar Pradesh; Kansala, Kansalava in Rajasthan; Kankol in Punjab; Kansui in Maharashtra; Kennri in Orissa, Kenno in Bengal, Purans in Tamilnadu and so on and so forth All the terms mostly beginning with the world KAN, which in Hindi means ear and so is the confusion that it enters human ears. It enters human ear is a MYTH : The fact is that it is a nocturnal animal having photonegative behavior and hides in dark places; hence any dark place may be suitable for their hiding, then accidentally it may be a human nose or ear.

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MISNOMER: The centipedes (Centum meaning hundred and pedes, feet) bear hundred pair of legs, is a misnomer. The number of pair of legs varies from 9 to 177, always in odd numbers. The name centipedes, therefore, is merely a symbolic representation of having more number of legs. Similar is true for millipedes ( Million , means Thousands), which have 20 to 200 pair of legs, always in even numbers but never bears thousand pair of legs. The maximum recorded number is 750 (i.e. 375 pair of legs)

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Ecosystem Services Provided by the Myriapods The Millipedes exclusively detrivores . facilitate microbial decomposition and enhance soil nutrient cycles. In countries where earthworm population is low, millipedes are the main debris reducing, soil forming organisms. Unlike centipedes the millipedes are harmless. Their secretions can temporarily discolor skins. Some Juliform species forcefully squirt defensive secretions a meter or so and can blind chickens and dogs. The millipedes in agriculture fields help in soil aeration and humification and are called” macro-degraders”. They are not a recognized pests but attack crops of beans, peas, cucumbers, cabbage, cereals, potatoes, sugar beats and sugar cane only under forced condition of drought.

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While the Centipedes being carnivorous eat on Termites and grubs of the beetles, and moths which are the pests of the crops and timber.

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Methods of Their Collection and Preservation: Where to Look for? Area with optimum moisture and temperature conditions near a forest patch, ponds, lakes, hill slopes, nurseries and potted plants. Under stones, cow dungs,bark of the trees, mosses, in termite mounds, under leaf litters, under farm manure., etc. How to Collect? By hand picking with large forceps How to Preserve? Putting them singly or in small numbers in glass tubes filled with rectified sprit ( 70% Alcohol), with all the collection data.

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Thank you ! Dr. Vinod Khanna Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun Myriapods The Friends and Foes