GCSE Physical Education. : GCSE Physical Education. Student Revision Presentations.
Instructions. : Instructions. This disc contains information slides on all the major topics that you will be examined on for AQA GCSE PE. (Specification A)
It can be used for:
Revision.
Homework.
Coursework.
How to use it:
Either browse through each slide, using the direction arrows on your keyboard, if you want to view the whole course.
Use the action buttons labelled with the topic titles on the contents slide to move directly to the required topic lead slide. Then use the action buttons on this slide to take you to the specific area you require.
Each slide has a home button that will take you back to the lead slide in that topic area.
Contents. : Contents.
Body Systems Movement Health Fitness Training Technology & PE Factors Affecting Performance & Participation Social & Cultural Factors Affecting Participation Sample Exam Question Answers Drugs
Body Systems : Body Systems
Skeletal System Muscular System Circulatory System Respiratory System Energy Systems Nervous System Sample exam questions
Skeletal System : Skeletal System The skeletal system has six main functions:
Support
Protection
Blood production
Provides shape.
Point of muscular attachment.
Allows movement.
The skeletal system is held together by Ligaments.
The skeletal system is made up of four different categories of bones. These are:
Long bones. E.g. Femur (Blood production / support)
Short bones. E.g. Carpals (Movement)
Flat bones. E.g. Scapula (Protection)
Irregular bones. E.g. Vertebrae (Muscular attachment)
Muscular System : Muscular System The muscular system is made up of many different muscles.
Muscles can be classified into three categories:
Voluntary (e.g. Bicep, Tricep, Hamstring)
Involuntary (e.g. Gut wall)
Cardiac (The heart)
Muscular growth is called HYPERTROPHY
A reduction in muscular size is called ATROPHY
Key muscles to learn:
Deltoids, Pectorals, Latissimus Dorsi, Trapezius, Bicep, Tricep, Abdominals, Gluteus Maximus, Hamstring, Quadricep, Gastrocnemius.
Voluntary Muscle : Voluntary Muscle Voluntary muscle is muscle under conscious control – this means that we have to think to contract the muscle – a message is passed from our brain via our nervous system.
Voluntary muscle links with the skeletal system to cause movement.
Voluntary muscle attaches to the skeletal system via tendons. Tendons are strong connective tissue.
Examples
Deltoids, Pectorals, Latissimus Dorsi, Trapezius, Bicep, Tricep, Abdominals, Gluteus Maximus, Hamstring, Quadricep, Gastrocnemius.
Involuntary Muscle : Involuntary Muscle Involuntary muscle works without us having to think about it. It works automatically.
Involuntary muscle keeps our body functioning as it should.
Examples:
Gut wall, blood vessels.
Cardiac Muscle : Cardiac Muscle Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart.
It is a form of involuntary muscle. It works without us having to think about it.
Cardiac muscle (Heart) has to keep contracting to ensure that blood continues to be pumped around the body so that the circulatory system can deliver nutrients and take away waste.
Most importantly it never tires!
Voluntary Muscular Contraction : Voluntary Muscular Contraction Voluntary muscles work by shortening or contracting.
Muscular contraction can be either:
Isometric – the muscle length does not change.
Isotonic – the muscle length changes.
If a muscle gets shorter under load (e.g. lifting a dumbell during a bicep curl) this is called a concentric contraction.
If a muscle gets longer under load (e.g. lowering a dumbell during a bicep curl) this is called an eccentric contraction.
Circulatory System : Circulatory System Key Components:
Heart – Muscular pump that keeps blood moving around the body.
Arteries – Carry blood away from the heart.
Veins – Carry blood to the heart.
Capillaries – Single cell thick blood vessels allowing the transfer of nutrients / waste from the blood stream to the working sites in the body.
Blood – Made up of:
Red Blood Cells – Carry OXYGEN to and CARBON DIOXIDE from the working sites.
White Blood Cells – Fight infection.
Platelets – Help blood clotting.
Plasma – Liquid that all other components of blood are in.
Function:
To transport vital nutrients to the working sites in the body.
To remove waste products from the working sites and deliver them to the correct places for excretion from the body.
Circulatory System : Circulatory System Key Information:
Blood passes through the heart twice on a complete circuit of the body.
As the blood travels around the body it can be felt at sites around the body. This is called a pulse.
The pulse can be found in the neck (carotid), the wrist (radial) and the groin (femoral).
Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the internal walls of the blood vessels.
Your maximum heart rate (mhr) can be worked out by 220 – your age.
This allows your to work out thresholds of training – 60% mhr for aerobic work and 85% mhr for anaerobic work.
Key terms:
Heart Rate – The number of times your heart beats per minute.
Resting Heart Rate – The number of times a person’s heart beats at rest.
Stroke Volume – The amount of blood pumped out of the heart each beat.
Cardiac Output – The amount of blood pumped out of the heart each minute. (Heart Rate x Stroke Volume)
Circulatory System : Circulatory System Effects of exercise on the circulatory system:
Short Term:
Heart rate rises, cardiac output increases, blood vessels close to the skin dilate (widen) to allow heat generated by exercise to escape
Long Term:
Aerobic Training
Heart gets bigger, stroke volume increases & resting heart rate drops.
Blood pressure drops due to more elastic blood vessels.
Increased number of red blood cells produced to help deliver 02 & remove CO2.
Increased number of capillaries around muscles / alveoli to help blood to access working sites.
Anaerobic Training
Heart wall gets thicker to cope with sudden increase in blood pressure created by anaerobic training.
Respiratory System : Respiratory System Key Components:
Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, alveoli, diaphragm, intercostal muscles.
Function:
To inhale oxygen and get it to the site of gas exchange (alveoli) allowing oxygen to the pass into the circulatory system.
To exhale carbon dioxide from the lungs after it has passed from the site of gas exchange (alveoli) into which it passed from the circulatory system.
Effects of exercise on the respiratory system:
Short Term
Breathing rate increases. Vital capacity (depth) of breathing increases. Rate of gas exchange increases.
Long Term
Gas exchange becomes more efficient. Vital capacity increases. Diaphragm and intercostal muscles get stronger.
Respiratory System : Respiratory System Key terms:
Breathing rate The number of breaths per minute.
Tidal Volume The amount you breathe in & out during normal breathing.
Vital Capacity The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled in one breath.
Residual Volume The amount of air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.
Minute Volume The amount of air your lungs inhale & exhale per minute.
Inhalation Breathing in.
Exhalation Breathing out.
Energy Systems : Energy Systems There are three energy systems in our body:
Aerobic System GLUCOSE + OXYGEN = ENERGY + CARBON DIOXIDE+ WATER
Produces unlimited energy when working below about 85% of max heart rate. Produces energy slowly. Used by marathon runners
Lactic Acid System GLUCOSE = ENERGY + LACTIC ACID + OXYGEN DEBT
Produces lots of energy quickly. Will last up to 2 minutes. Partial breakdown of molecules during the reaction creates oxygen debt. (symptom: heavy panting) Oxygen must be taken in to completely breakdown the glucose molecules and return the body to a balanced state. (homeostasis) Used by 400m / 800m runners.
ATP/PC System PHOSPHOCREATINE = PHOSPHATE + CREATINE + ENERGY
Produces lots of energy very quickly. Only lasts up to 10 seconds. Phosphocreatine molecules are broken down to create energy. Used by 100m runners.
Nervous System : Nervous System The nervous system transmits information to parts of our body.
The information travels as small electrical impulses along nerves.
The main organ in the CNS (central nervous system) is the spinal cord. All information passing along the CNS passes through the spinal cord.
Athletes need the CNS to function effectively so that they can control the parts of the body that they wish to move.
Sample exam questions – Body Systems : Sample exam questions – Body Systems Name four functions of the skeleton. (4)
Name two bones found in the arm. (2)
Name the three type of muscle found in the body. (3)
Explain the function of tendons. (1)
Explain the function of ligaments. (1)
Answers
Sample exam questions – Body Systems : Sample exam questions – Body Systems State two places in the body where a pulse can be located. (2)
State and explain the long term effects of aerobic training on the circulatory system. (5)
State and explain the short term effects of exercise on the respiratory system. (5)
Answers
Movement : Movement
What is a joint? Types of movement Types of joint & their actions How movement occurs Sample exam questions
A Joint : A Joint “A joint is where two or more bones meet.”
Joints can be classified into three categories:
Freely moveable. (e.g. Knee)
Slightly moveable. (e.g. Vertebral column)
Fixed. (e.g. Plates of the cranium)
Key terms:
Cartilage – tough, flexible, slippery tissue found at the end of bones. Shock absorber.
Joint – Where two or more bones meet.
Ligament – Tough elastic fibre joining bone to bone.
Tendon – Tough inelastic fibre joining muscle to bone.
Synovial Fluid – Lubricating, shock absorbing liquid found in freely moveable joints
Types of Movement : Types of Movement Abduction
The movement of a limb away from the central line of the body. (abduct – to take away)
Adduction
The movement of a limb towards the central line of the body. (add – adding to the body)
Flexion
Reducing the angle at a joint. (Bending)
Extension
Increasing the angle at a joint. (Straightening)
Rotation
The limb or body part moves in a circular motion.
Types of Synovial Joints & Their Actions. : Types of Synovial Joints & Their Actions.
How Movement Occurs : How Movement Occurs Bones and muscles link to cause movement.
Muscles are attached to bones via TENDONS.
Muscles are attached at both ends to bone.
Muscles must be attached across a joint to allow movement to occur at that joint.
Muscles cause movement by CONTRACTING.
This means that to cause movement in two ways TWO MUSCLES are needed.
The muscle that causes the movement is called the AGONIST or PRIME MOVER.
The muscle that causes movement in the other direction relaxes and is called the ANTAGONIST.
Small muscles that assist movement are called SYNERGISTS.
The point of muscular attachment that stays still is called the ORIGIN.
The point of muscular contraction that moves (towards the origin) is called the INSERTION.
How Movement Occurs : How Movement Occurs
Sample exam questions – Movement : Sample exam questions – Movement What is a joint? (2)
Name the three types of joint found in the human body. (3)
State the function of ligaments. (2)
State the functions of tendons. (2)
What is the function of synovial fluid in a freely movable joint? (2)
What is the function of cartilage in a freely moveable joint? (2)
Answers
Sample exam questions – Movement : Sample exam questions – Movement Using a sporting example e.g. throwing or kicking state how bones and muscles link to cause movement. (5)
Answers
Health : Health
What is health? Physical well being Mental well being Social well being Diet Somatotype Sample exam questions
What is health? : What is health? “Health is a complete state of physical, social and mental well being.”
(World Health Organisation)
What does that actually mean? : What does that actually mean?
Physical well being is the body’s systems working well and the absence of illness and injury.
What does that actually mean? : What does that actually mean?
Mental well being is being happy with yourself and not overly emotional or stressed.
What does that actually mean? : What does that actually mean?
Social well being is having the support of friends and family and an awareness of my role in society.
What is a balanced diet? : What is a balanced diet? A balanced diet consists of seven components:
Carbohydrates.
Fats.
Protein.
Water.
Vitamins.
Minerals.
Fibre.
Carbohydrates. : Carbohydrates. Function:
To provide energy.
Short term energy from simple carbohydrates.
Long term energy from complex carbohydrates.
Stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle tissue.
Sources:
Simple: Sugars.
Complex: Starches – bread, pasta, rice, potatoes.
Fats. : Fats. Function:
To provide stores of energy for long term release and stored under the skin and around major organs to provide insulation. There are two types:
Saturated.
Unsaturated.
Sources:
Saturated: animal fats e.g. butter, whole milk, eggs.
Unsaturated: vegetable fats e.g. olive oil, avocado, nuts.
Protein. : Protein. Function:
To allow growth and repair of the body’s tissues. Breaks down into amino acids that are restructured into muscle protein.
Sources:
Fish, chicken, lean red meat and soya. Also in dairy products but these have a high fat content!
Water. : Water. Function:
To allow the body to maintain a constant temperature. To allow cells to function effectively.
Sources:
The recommended intake of water is 8 glasses per day – for athletes that are training or on hot days this must increase.
Vitamins. : Vitamins. Function:
Vitamin A: Healthy skin, good night vision.
Vitamin B: Helps brain function & fertility.
Vitamin C: Prevents scurvy.
Vitamin D: Strong bones.
Sources:
Vitamin A: Milk, butter, fish.
Vitamin B: Cereals.
Vitamin C: Citrus fruit and vegetables.
Vitamin D: Milk, fish, eggs, sunshine. or
Minerals. : Minerals. Function:
Iron: Helps blood function and concentration.
Calcium: Helps the formation of healthy teeth and bones.
Sources:
Iron: Liver, green vegetables, cereal.
Calcium: Milk, cheese.
Fibre. : Fibre. Function:
To aid digestion and excretion by giving the gut wall something to push on.
Sources:
Fresh fruit and vegetables.
A Balanced Diet : A Balanced Diet Usually a person will eat a diet that is composed of approximately 60% carbohydrate, 15% protein and 25% fat. Sports people will adapt this to their own needs. An endurance athlete will eat a high carbohydrate for long lasting energy and a power athlete may eat a high protein diet to enable muscular repair.
A Balanced Diet : A Balanced Diet A balanced diet should provide all the nutrients that your body requires for its daily tasks.
The more active you are the greater the energy intake you will need.
Women and men have different daily calorific requirements.
Men can usually consume 2500kcals per day without gaining weight.
Women can usually consume 2000kcals per day without gaining weight.
Physical Activity and Diet. : Physical Activity and Diet. How do we maintain energy stores?
Eat a high carbohydrate meal at least two hours before exercise.
Do not take a glucose drink or snack before performance – it actually reduces energy stores more quickly.
If you are performing or training for a long period of time (40 minutes +) sipping a glucose drink during will help maintain performance.
Replace lost carbohydrate stores with a carbohydrate rich meal after exercise.
Physical Activity and Diet. : Physical Activity and Diet. Fluid loss is a major problem for athletes during training and performance.
Studies have shown that marathon runners can lose 6 – 10% of bodyweight during a race.
This means up to 7 litres of liquid lost from the body.
Dehydration can cause up to a 33% decrease in performance. (British Journal of Sports Science. 1998.)
Physical Activity and Diet. : Physical Activity and Diet. How does an athlete lose liquid during performance?
Sweat
The athlete’s body temperature rises and then produces sweat to help control the temperature.
Water vapour on the breath
The athlete has to breathe both faster and more deeply to provide oxygen to the working muscles. This means the amount of water lost as vapour on the breath increases.
Physical Activity and Diet. : Physical Activity and Diet. What are the effects of dehydration on the athlete?
Lack of concentration.
Loss of important electrolytes such as sodium and chloride.
Endurance reduces.
Body temperature rises possibly leading to heat exhaustion.
More susceptible to fatigue.
Physical Activity and Diet. : Physical Activity and Diet. How can the effects of dehydration be avoided?
Regularly sipping liquid during sporting activity.
Not waiting until thirsty – it’s too late, dehydration has already occurred!
Ensuring that two hours before performance your body is fully hydrated.
After performance you replace lost fluids with a drink containing electrolytes.
Somatotype. : Somatotype. This refers to a person’s body type.
Somatotyping measures a person’s body build in terms of fat, muscle and linearity (height) on a scale of 1 - 7. 1 is a low score and 7 is a high score.
There are three main types of somatotype:
Endomorph.
Mesomorph.
Ectomorph.
Athletes all tend to have a high degree of mesomorph as they require large amounts of muscle.
Endomorph. : Endomorph. Characteristics:
Fatty upper arms.
Thin wrists.
Wide hips.
Narrow shoulders.
Fatty thighs Suitable Sports:
Sumo wrestling, prop forward in rugby.
Mesomorph. : Mesomorph. Characteristics:
Large head.
Broad shoulders.
Strong forearms and thighs.
Narrow hips. Suitable Sports:
All sports, especially sprinting, rugby and rowing
Ectomorph. : Ectomorph. Characteristics:
Narrow face and high forehead.
Narrow shoulders.
Thin narrow chest and abdomen.
Slim hips.
Suitable Sports:
High jump, basketball, netball.
Sample exam questions - Health : Sample exam questions - Health What are the three components of health? (3)
Carbohydrate is one part of a balanced diet, name two others. (2)
What is dehydration? (1)
State two ways in which an athlete could ensure that they do not get dehydrated. (2)
Mesomorph is one somatotype, name two others. (2)
Which type of sport would suit an athlete with mesomorph and ectomorph mix of body types? (1)
Answers
Fitness : Fitness
What is fitness? Aspects of fitness – General Aspects of fitness – Specific Testing fitness Sample exam questions
What is Fitness? : What is Fitness? “The ability to meet the demands of your environment and lifestyle and still have energy left for emergencies.”
Fitness can be broken down into two areas:
General
Specific
Types of Fitness. : Types of Fitness. GENERAL fitness is made up of 5 factors:
Speed.
Strength.
Stamina.
Suppleness.
Somatotype.
All people require some combination of all these factors.
Speed. : Speed. “The ability to move the body or parts of the body from one place to another in the shortest possible time.”
Needed by:
Games players.
Sprinters.
Someone who is running late.
Strength. : Strength. “The amount of force muscles can exert against a resistance.”
Muscular strength can be divided into 3 types:
Static.
Explosive.
Dynamic.
Static Strength. : Static Strength. This is the application of maximum force against an immovable object.
Used in tug of war and a rugby scrum.
Muscles do not change length. (isometric contraction)
Explosive Strength. : Explosive Strength. This is the maximum amount of force used in one movement. i.e. Power.
Muscle length changes. (isotonic contraction)
Used by sprinters, throwers, jumpers and weightlifters.
Dynamic Strength. : Dynamic Strength. This is the repeated application of force (muscular endurance).
Muscle length changes. (isotonic contraction)
Used in running, cycling, rowing.
Stamina. : Stamina. “The ability of the body to continue working for long periods of time.”
Needed by:
Long distance runners.
Labourers.
Indications of someone who has good stamina will include:
A low resting heart rate.
A large vital capacity.
Suppleness. : Suppleness. Another word for suppleness is flexibility. Both can be defined as:
“The range of movement around a joint.”
Greater movement = greater suppleness.
Needed by:
Gymnasts.
Someone picking something up from the floor.
Types of Fitness. : Types of Fitness. SPECIFIC fitness is made up from the following factors:
Agility.
Balance.
Power.
Coordination.
Timing.
Reaction Time.
People have differing requirements from this list depending on their lifestyle or chosen sporting activity.
Specific Fitness - Agility. : Specific Fitness - Agility. “The ability to change direction at speed.”
Needed by:
Games Players.
Gymnasts.
Rock climbers.
Specific Fitness - Balance. : Specific Fitness - Balance. “ The ability to stay upright or in equilibrium.”
Needed by:
Gymnasts.
Games Players.
Surfers.
Specific Fitness - Power. : Specific Fitness - Power. “ The maximum amount of force that can be applied in one movement.”
Needed by:
Rugby Players.
Weightlifters.
Throwers.
Specific Fitness - Coordination. : Specific Fitness - Coordination. “ The ability to synchronise movements of different body parts in response to the requirements of the activity.”
Needed by:
Racquet sports players.
Gymnasts.
Games players.
Specific Fitness - Timing. : Specific Fitness - Timing. “ The ability to act at precisely the right moment.”
Needed by:
Games players.
Gymnasts.
Sailors.
Athletes.
Specific Fitness - Reaction Time. : Specific Fitness - Reaction Time. “ The time it takes for the body to respond to a stimulus.”
Needed by:
Sprinters.
Racing drivers.
Racquet sports players.
Goalkeepers.
Testing Fitness. : Testing Fitness. Fitness testing is designed to be able to measure aspects of both general and specific fitness.
Once levels of fitness have been established it is easier for people to train appropriately for their needs.
This is why when testing fitness we need to be as accurate as possible and take care to administer tests correctly.
Testing Fitness. : Testing Fitness. Fitness tests can be either maximal or submaximal.
Maximal tests take place at around maximum heart rate (220-age) or push the athlete being tested to their maximum capacity. (1 rep max lift in the gym.)
Submaximal tests take place below the athletes maximum thresholds and then calculations are used to create fitness scores. (Harvard step test.)
Measuring General Fitness. : Measuring General Fitness. Aspects of general fitness can be measured using the following fitness tests:
Measuring specific fitness. : Measuring specific fitness. Aspects of specific fitness can be measured in the following ways:
Sample exam questions - Fitness : Sample exam questions - Fitness What is fitness? (2)
State two components of general fitness. (2)
State two components of specific fitness. (2)
State and explain an example of an athlete that would use dynamic strength. (2)
State and explain an example of an athlete that would use explosive strength. (2)
State a fitness test that could be used for measuring stamina. (1) Answers
Training : Training
Principles of training Methods of training Sample exam questions
Principles of Training. : Principles of Training. There are five key principles of training:
Specificity
Progression
Overload
Reversibility
Tedium
Specificity : Specificity E.g.
Lance Armstrong will train specifically for cycling. Much of his training will take place on a bike, replicating the type of activity that he performs during a race. Lance Armstrong will focus on training the major muscle groups used when cycling; quads, hamstrings, gastrocnemius & soleus.
“ Training for a specific sport, training in a specific way or training a specific body part to function in a particular way.”
Progression : Progression “Gradually increasing the load placed upon your body to allow continual improvement to your body to occur.”
If an athlete always trained at the same intensity then little benefit would be gained once the body had adapted to the increased training load.
To allow continual improvement to be made training must be made gradually more difficult.
This is why an athlete who has been training regularly for a long period of time will have a harder training programme than an untrained person who has just joined a gym.
Overload : Overload “Placing extra demands on the body so it has to work harder than normal, thus allowing the body to adapt (improve) to the loads placed upon it.”
Overload is based on thresholds of training and the F.I.D. principle.
Thresholds of Training : Thresholds of Training 60% MHR M.H.R. = 220 – age 85% MHR Heart gets bigger.
RHR drops.
Blood volume increases.
More capillaries around muscles. Heart wall gets thicker.
Blood vessels gain elasticity. Long term benefits of training:
Frequency : Frequency “The number of times a person trains each week.”
The more often a person trains, the more often their body is stressed.
This leads to a quicker gain in fitness.
The general population should exercise at least 3 times per week.
Top athletes need to train more frequently than this.
Recovery is also important; not enough recovery time will lead to overtraining and overuse injuries.
Intensity : Intensity “How hard the exercise is.”
Pulse rate is a good indicator of the intensity of exercise.
60% – 85% (m.h.r.) is the ideal training zone, the fitter the person the higher in this zone they should train.
To help monitor this people can use heart rate monitors.
Weight trainers also use percentage calculations to work out their training thresholds.
They work out their maximum lifting weight on each exercise.
70% of this is then lifted to improve strength.
30% of this is then lifted to improve endurance.
Duration : Duration “The length of the training session.”
The length of training session is linked to the type exercise / improvement that the athlete requires.
A sprinter may train in many short bursts of 10 – 30 seconds over an hour.
A marathon runner may train continuously for 1.5 – 2 hours at a time.
For general health benefits people should aim to train for at least 20 minutes, after completing a warm up, with their heart rate in the training zone.
Reversibility : Reversibility “ Benefits gained by training are easily lost.”
If an athlete does not train then the benefits that they have worked hard to create will be lost.
To maintain the benefits created by training the body still needs to be overloaded.
Endurance is lost three times quicker than it is gained.
Keywords:
Atrophy – Reduction in muscle size through lack of training.
Hypertrophy – Increase in muscle size due to the effects of training.
Tedium : Tedium “If exercise is boring, people will not want to take part –leading to reversibility.”
Exercise / training should be varied to maintain interest.
Small achievable goals should be set to give a sense of progress / achievement.
Training with a partner or team mates is a good way to avoid tedium.
Forms of Training - Circuit : Forms of Training - Circuit “A series of different exercises completed using different parts of the body, working on each exercise for a specified amount of time”
Circuit training can be adapted to work on many different aspects of fitness; strength, speed, stamina, flexibility.
The circuit should be organised so muscles are not worked on consecutive stations.
Benefits
Easy to accommodate large numbers of people, keeps training varied, can work more than 1 aspect of fitness at a time, individual targets can be met.
Limitations
Requires a degree of space, not really suitable for training on y