2007 01 17 presentation

I. Introduction : I. Introduction From darkness to light? The Renaissance spirit An intellectual and cultural movement Diversity of attitudes and approaches


II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages : II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages Observations Classical culture was alive in the Middle Ages “Renaissance paganism” and medieval “age of faith” a false contrast There was no Renaissance position on anything Renaissance classicism Significant quantitative difference between medieval and Renaissance learning Rediscovery of classical texts (e.g., Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero)


II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) : II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) Recovery of classical Greece from Byzantium Forced scholars to learn Greek Renaissance scholars used classical texts in new ways An awareness of history An awareness of cultural gaps Models of thought and action Similarities between ancient city-states and those of Renaissance Italy


II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) : II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) Renaissance culture more worldly and materialistic Italian city-states The importance of the urban political arena A nonecclesiastical culture Relative weakness of the church in Italy Renaissance humanism A program of study From scholastic logic and meta-physics to language, literature, rhetoric, history, and ethics Vernacular literature as a diversion for the masses


II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) : II. The Renaissance and the Middle Ages (contd.) Serious scholarship written in Latin (Cicero and Virgil) or Greek The charge of elitism Turned Latin into a fossilized language The Renaissance educational program The study of Latin and Greek Producing virtuous citizens and able public officials A practical elitism Little concern for the education of women The humanities


III. The Renaissance in Italy : III. The Renaissance in Italy The origins of the Italian Renaissance—why Italy? Italy was the most advanced urban society Aristocrats lived in urban centers More fully involved in urban public life Aristocrats and merchants less sharply defined Engaged in mercantile enterprises or banking Greater demands for education for public life Best-educated upper class in Europe


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) A greater sense of affinity with the classical past The omnipresence of the past—surrounded by the monuments of ancient Rome The attempt to establish a cultural identity independent from cholasticism Heightened antagonism between France and Italy Roman art as alternative to French Gothicism Italian wealth A wealthy Italy compared to the rest of Europe Italian writers and artists stayed at home rather than seeking employment abroad


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) Urban pride and the concentration of per capita wealth Public urban support for culture Patronage of the aristocracy Patronage of the papacy The Italian Renaissance: literature and thought Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) Deeply committed Christian Scholasticism was misguided Taught abstract speculation, not how to live virtuously


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) The Christian writer must cultivate literary eloquence, inspire people to do good Models of eloquence to be found in Latin literature Ethical wisdom Wrote vernacular sonnets The ultimate ideal was contemplation and asceticism


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) The emergence of textual scholarship The civic humanists went beyond Petrarch in their knowledge of classicism Aided by Byzantine scholars who migrated to Italy Italian scholars traveled to Constantinople looking for Greek texts Giovanni Aurispa brought 238 manuscript books to Italy (1423) Translated into Latin sense for sense, rather than word for word


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) Renaissance Neoplatonism Blending the ideas of Plato, Plotinus, and ancient mysticism with Christianity Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) Member of the Platonic Academy at Florence Translated Plato’s works into Latin Hermetica Corpus


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) Also a member of the Academy Saw little worth in public affairs Oration on the Dignity of Man “Nothing more wonderful than man” Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) The man Reflected the instability of Renaissance Florence and Italy


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) Became a prominent government official of the Florentine republic (1498) Went on diplomatic missions to other city-states Fascinated with the achievements of Cesare Borgia Deprived of his position (1512) The ideas Was he the amoral theorist of realpolitik? Was he an Italian patriot? Was he a follower of Saint Augustine?


III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) : III. The Renaissance in Italy (contd.) The Discourses on Livy Praises the ancient Roman republic as a model Constitutional government Equality among all citizens of a republic Subordination of religion to the needs of the state The Prince A “handbook for tyrants” in the eyes of his critics Machiavelli saw that only a ruthless prince could revitalize the spirit of independence Dark vision of human nature


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture General tendencies Laws of linear perspective were discovered in the fifteenth century Experimented with the effects of light and shade (chiaroscuro) Careful studies of human anatomy Growth of lay patronage opened the door to nonreligious themes and subjects Delighting the intellect and the eye Oil does not dry quickly, allowing the painter to make changes


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Renaissance painting in Florence Masaccio (1401–1428) “Giotto reborn” Paintings imitated nature Employed perspective and chiaroscuro Sandro Botticelli (1445–1510) Classical and Christian subjects Allegory of Spring and Birth of Venus Allegories compatible with Christian teachings


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Ancient gods and goddesses represent various Christian virtues Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) Personified the “Renaissance Man” Painter, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, and artist Patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent Worked slowly—difficulty finishing project Left Florence for Milan and the Sforzas (1482–1499) A “camera eye” for what he painted


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) The worship of nature and the essential divinity in all things The Virgin of the Rocks Passion for science, the universe as a well-ordered place The Last Supper A study of psychological reactions Mona Lisa and Ginevra de Benci The Venetian School Giovanni Bellini (c. 1430–1516) Giorgione (1478–1510) Titian (c. 1490–1576)


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Characteristics Their art reflected the luxurious life of Venice Their aim was to appeal to the senses, not the mind A mirror of the tastes of wealthy merchants Painting in Rome Raphael (1483–1520) Native of Urbino Portrayals of man as temperate, wise, and dignified Influenced by Leonardo Disputà and the School of Athens


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Michelangelo (1475–1564) An idealist, embraced Neoplatonism Painter, sculptor, architect, and poet The centrality of the male figure—powerful and magnificent The Sistine Chapel paintings (1508–1512) God Dividing the Light from Darkness, The Creation of Adam, The Flood Commitment to classical aesthetic principles of art (harmony, solidity, dignified restraint) The Last Judgment (1536)


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Sculpture Donatello (c. 1386–1466) David—the first free-standing nude since antiquity Michelangelo Sculpture allowed the artist to imitate God in recreating human forms Subordinated naturalism to the force of imagination David (1501) as expression of Florentine civic ideals


IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) : IV. The Italian Renaissance: Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (Contd.) Moses (c. 1515)—anatomical distortion and emotional intensity Descent from the Cross (unfinished) Architecture New building style was a composite of elements from antiquity and medieval Europe Italian Romanesque as model Cruciform floor plan Geometrical proportions St. Peter’s Basilica (Rome) Andrea Palladio (1508–1580)


V. The Waning of the Italian Renaissance : V. The Waning of the Italian Renaissance Causes of decline, c. 1550 War French invasion of 1494 and incessant warfare French inroads on northern Italy by Charles VIII Duchy of Milan and Kingdom of Naples Aroused the suspicions of the Spanish Louis XII invaded a second time (1499–1529) Rome sacked by the Holy Roman emperor, Charles V (1527)


V. The Waning of the Italian Renaissance (contd.) : V. The Waning of the Italian Renaissance (contd.) The waning of Italian prosperity Gradual shift of trade from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Warfare contributed to economic decline The Counter-Reformation The Inquisition (1542) and Index of Forbidden Books (1564) Censorship The death of Giordano Bruno The trial of Galileo


VI. The Renaissance in the North : VI. The Renaissance in the North Observations Italian merchants were familiar figures at northern courts Students from all over Europe attended Italian universities Northern European intellectual life dominated by universities Paris, Oxford, Charles University (Prague) Focus was on logic and Christian theology Little room for study of classical literature


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) More secular, urban-oriented educational tradition in Italy Northern rulers less interested in patronizing artists and intellectuals Christian humanism and the northern Renaissance Northern Christian humanists looked for ethical guidelines in the Christian past They sought wisdom from the Christian ancients New Testament The church fathers


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Northern artists inspired by Italian example to learn classical techniques Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1469–1536) “The prince of the Christian humanists” Born near Rotterdam but was a citizen of the world Devoured the classics and the teachings of the church fathers Attended University of Paris Rebelled against Parisian scholasticism Made his living by teaching and writing


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Traveled to England, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands A Latin prose stylist Verbal effects, puns, and irony Promoted the “philosophy of Christ” All society is corrupt, go back to the Gospels The Praise of Folly (1509) Sarcasm and parody of everything, including himself


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Colloquies (1518) a. Examined contemporary religious practices Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503) Urged the laity to pursue lives of inward piety Complaint of Peace (1517) Christian pacifism Textual criticism New versions of Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) The New Testament (1516) Greek and Latin translations Sir Thomas More (1478–1535) Lord Chancellor of England (1529) Imprisoned for not taking an oath naming Henry VIII as head of the Church of England (1534) Thrown into the Tower of London and executed Martyrdom Utopia An Erasmian critique of contemporary society


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) An indictment against unearned wealth, persecution, punishment, and the slaughter of war No private property or war Ulrich von Hutten (1488–1523) German disciple of Erasmus Dedicated to German cultural nationalism Collaborated with Crotus Rubianus Wrote Letters of Obscure Men (1515) A satire on Scholasticism


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) The decline of Christian humanism Thrown into disarray by the Protestant Reformation Devastating critiques of clerical corruption and religious ceremonialism Caught between Catholicism and Lutheranism


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Literature, art, and music in the northern Renaissaance Pierre de Ronsard (c. 1524–1585) and Joachim du Bellay (c. 1522–1560)—wrote Petrarchan sonnets Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586) and Edmund Spenser (c. 1552–1599) François Rabelais (c. 1494–1553) Began his career in the clergy Studied medicine, became a physician in Lyons Gargantua and Pantagruel Satirized religious cere-monialism, scholasticism, superstitions, and bigotry


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Written in French Glorified the human and the natural The “abbey of Thélème”— “do what thou wouldst.” Architecture French châteaux Combined elements of French Gothic with classical horizontality The Louvre, Paris (1546)


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Painting Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) Mastered Italian techniques of proportion and perspective The details of nature Erasmus the hero Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) The portraits of Sir Thomas More and Erasmus Capturing the essence of human individuality


VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) : VI. The Renaissance in the North (contd.) Music Humanistic efforts to recover and imitate classical musical forms New expressiveness: coloration and emotional quality New musical instruments: lute, viol, violin, and harpsichord New musical forms: madrigal, motets, opera Less distinction between sacred andprofane music


VII. Conclusion : VII. Conclusion Contrasts Scholasticism and Christianity Neoplatonism and Christianity Civic and Christian humanism Machiavelli and Erasmus High Middle Ages and the Renaissance


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I. Introduction : I. Introduction Europe in 1500 Population growth, an expanding economy, and increased urbanization National monarchies created in England, France, Spain, and Poland Resumption of commercial and colonial expansion Suppression of heresy Popular devotion had increased


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Luther’s quest for religious certainty Luther and his father Sent to the University of Erfurt to study law 1505: Luther enters an Augustinian monastery 1513: Conversion experience—the quest for spiritual peace The problem of the justice of God How could God issue commands man could not obey? Eternal damnation as punishment


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) The “tower experience” Meditated upon the Psalms (“deliver me in thy justice”) God’s power lay in his mercy to save sinful mortals through faith Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17)—“the just shall live by faith” God’s justice does not depend on “good works” and religious ceremonies Humans are saved by grace alone (“justification by faith alone”)


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Piety and charity as visible signs of the faithful Salvation and the church The church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity) could affect salvation The church “quantified” the process of salvation The “Treasury of Merits” The indulgence Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests Indulgences earned by de-manding spiritual exercises (eleventh and twelfth centuries) Indulgences granted with a monetary payment


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Indulgences seen by many as just another form of simony (selling grace in return for cash) “Here I stand; God help me, I can do no other.” The Reformation begins Albert of Hohenzolern Debt and simony The bargain with Pope Leo X Granted Albert an indulgence Half the money went to build St. Peter’s Basilica at Rome Half the money went to Albert


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Johann Tetzel Hawked indulgences in northern Germany with Fugger support Sold indulgences as “tickets to heaven” October 31, 1517: Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses Written in Latin, intended for academic dispute Translated and published in German 1519: public disputation in Leipzig Luther maintained that the pope and all clerics were merely fallible men The highest authority for an individual’s conscience was the truth of Scripture


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Pope Leo charged Luther with heresy Luther’s pamphlets of 1520—general ideas Justification by faith alone The primacy of Scripture The literal meaning of Scripture takes precedence over church traditions The “priesthood of all believers” All Christian believers are spiritually equal before God


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) General consequences Good works do not lead to salvation Fasts, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics were valueless The dissolution of all monasteries and convents Proposed substituting German for Latin in church services Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two (baptism and the eucharist) Denied that the Mass was a repetition of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross Proposed the abolition of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) The break with Rome The role of the printing press in spreading Luther’s message Luther’s defiance touched off a national religious revolt against the papacy Popes bribed the cardinals to gain the papacy Moral corruption Popes waged war to gain territory There were no agreements (concordats) between pope and German emperor Princes complained that taxes were too high


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Many German princes sided with Luther as a way to attack Roman influence and corruption The Diet of Worms (1521) Luther handed over to Elector Frederick the Wise for punishment as a heretic Frederick convened a Diet (formal assembly) to give Luther a “fair hearing”


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Initiative lay with presiding officer, Charles V (Holy Roman emperor) Would not tolerate attacks on the church or the emperor Luther kidnapped by Frederick and brought to the castle of the Wartburg Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw (never enforced) The German princes and the Lutheran Reformation The new religion prevailed in areas where princes formally established Lutheranism


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Rulers sought to control appointments to church offices and restrict flow of money to Rome 1487: Innocent VIII consented to the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition 1516: Concordat of Bologna—French king to choose bishops and abbots The consolidation of the authority of the German princes Free cities adopted Lutheranism in order to establish supreme governing authority


II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) : II. The Lutheran Upheaval (contd.) Luther and temporal authority 1523: On Temporal Authority—God must be obeyed in all things 1525: Against the Thievish, Murderous Hordes of Peasants


II. The Lutheran Upheaval : II. The Lutheran Upheaval Explaining the success of Martin Luther (1483–1546) Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the exactions of their lords Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political independence Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes From reforming the church to a frontal assault on the church


III. The Spread of Protestantism : III. The Spread of Protestantism German Imperial Diet (1529) originated the term “Protestant” The Reformation in Switzerland The independence of prosperous Swiss cities Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) Theologically moderate form of Lutheranism Catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority


III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) : III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) The Eucharist was a reminder of Christ’s sacrifice, not the real presence of Christ’s body (Luther) Prevented Lutherans and Zwinglians from joining forces in a united front Anabaptism Radical Protestant sect Convinced that baptism was effective only if administered to willing adults Men and women are not born into any church Feared by both Catholics and Protestants


III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) : III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) Münster (1534) Sectarianism and millenarianism The New Jerusalem John of Leyden Obligatory religious practices, private property abolished, polygamy permitted Anabaptists persecuted across Europe Menno Simons (c. 1496–1561) and the Mennonite sect


III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) : III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) John Calvin’s reformed theology John Calvin (1509–1564) Born near Paris, studied law, became a humanist Institutes of the Christian Religion The omnipotence of God Man is sinful by nature Predestination and the elect An active life of piety and morality


III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) : III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) b. Calvin and church government Rejected popery outright Eliminated all traces of hierarchy Congregational election of ministers and assemblies of ministers and electors “Four bare walls and a sermon” Calvinism in Geneva Calvin began preaching in 1536, expelled in 1538, returned in 1541


III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) : III. The Spread of Protestantism (contd.) Calvinist theocracy The Consistory—twelve lay elders, ten to twenty pastors The supervision of morality Spread of Calvinism John Knox (c. 1513–1572)—brought Calvinism to Scotland (Presbyterians) The Dutch Reformed Church French Huguenots English Puritans


IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 : IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 Protestantism and the family (Germany and Switzerland) Protestant attacks on monasticism and clerical celibacy Resented immunity of monastic houses from taxation Guilds and town governments also interested in increasing control by town elites Reinforced individual craftsmen’s control over their households Family as a “school of godliness”


IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 (contd.) : IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 (contd.) New religious ideals for women The married and obedient Protestant “goodwife” Resolving the tension between piety and sexuality Reinforcement of male and female roles Shut down convents Property handed over to the town


IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 (contd.) : IV. The Domestication of the Reformation, 1525–1560 (contd.) Protestantism and control over marriage Increased parental control over children Parents wanted the power to prevent unsuitable matches Luther declares marriage to be a secular matter only


V. The English Reformation : V. The English Reformation Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) and the break with Rome 1527: Henry sought a divorce from Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn Appealed to Rome for an annulment of his marriage If the pope agreed, doubt would be cast on the validity of all papal dispensations It would also provoke the wrath of Charles V, Catherine’s nephew 1531: Henry declared himself to be “protestor and supreme head” of the church in England 1534: the Act of Supremacy


V. The English Reformation (contd.) : V. The English Reformation (contd.) Consequences Pilgrimages and relics were prohibited English church remained Catholic in organization, doctrine, ritual, and language 1539: the Six Articles of the faith Edward VI (r. 1547–1553) Came to the throne at nine years of age Altered ceremonies of the English church Priests were permitted to marry English was substituted for Latin


V. The English Reformation (contd.) : V. The English Reformation (contd.) The veneration of images was abolished New articles of faith were drawn up repudiating all sacraments except baptism and communion Justification by faith alone Mary Tudor (r. 1553–1558) and the restoration of Catholicism Reversed Edward’s religious policies Many were burned at the stake for refusing to give up Protestantism Asked Parliament to vote a return to papal allegiance


V. The English Reformation (contd.) : V. The English Reformation (contd.) “Bloody Mary” The Elizabethan religious settlement Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603) Daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn The new Act of Supremacy (1559) Repealed Mary’s Catholic legislation Prohibited foreign powers from exercising authority within England Declared herself “supreme governor” of the English church


V. The English Reformation (contd.) : V. The English Reformation (contd.) Retained some Catholic vestiges 3. 1562: the Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith 4. Protestantism and English nationalism: God has chosen England for greatness


VI. Catholicism Transformed : VI. Catholicism Transformed The Catholic Reformation First phase (c. 1490s) A movement for moral and institutional reform within the religious orders Papacy showed little interest in this Influence of northern humanists (Erasmus and More) Encouraged the laity to lead lives of simple but sincere religious piety Second phase (c. 1530s) More aggressive phase of reform


VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) : VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) New style of papal leadership Excessive holiness Accomplished administrators Reorganized papal finances Third phase: the Council of Trent (1545–1563) Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine Good works declared necessary for salvation The seven sacraments Papal supremacy


VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) : VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) Bishops and priests were for-bidden to hold more than one spiritual office Establishment of theological seminaries Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564) St. Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556) Spanish noble wounded in battle (1521) became a “spiritual solider of Christ” Ecstatic visions


VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) : VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) The Spiritual Exercises Practical advice on how to master the will A program of meditations on sin and the life of Christ The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded at Paris in 1534 Formally constituted as a holy order by Pope Paul III (1540) A company of soldiers sworn to defend the faith Eloquence, persuasion, and instruction The suppression of individuality Proselytized Christians and non-Christians alike


VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) : VI. Catholicism Transformed (contd.) Established schools Became an international movement Counter-Reformation Christianity Defended and revitalized the faith Spread literacy and intense concern for acts of charity New importance given to religious women St. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) The Ursulines and the Sisters of Charity


VII. Conclusion: The Heritage of the Protestant Reformation : VII. Conclusion: The Heritage of the Protestant Reformation The Reformation and the Renaissance Christian humanist influences Exposed abuses Close textual study of the Bible Luther and Erasmus Erasmus had no sympathy with Lutheran principles Most humanists believed in free will and that human nature was somehow good


VII. Conclusion: The Heritage of the Protestant Reformation (Contd.) : VII. Conclusion: The Heritage of the Protestant Reformation (Contd.) Consequences Increasing power of Europe’s sovereign states The growth of German cultural nationalism Protestantism and the role of women


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II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests : II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests The Price Revolution Dizzying inflation Causes Rising population: fifty to ninety million (1450–1600) Food supplies remained constant Influx of New World silver Effects Large-scale farmers, landlords, and some merchants profited For laborers, wages rose more slowly than prices


II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests (Contd.) : II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests (Contd.) The rich got richer, the poor got poorer Governments responded by raising taxes Religious conflicts The inevitability of religious wars The mutual support of “crown and altar” State-imposed religious authority The impossibility of religious pluralism


II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests (Contd.) : II. Economic, Religious, and Political Tests (Contd.) Political instability General weakness of major European kingdoms Dynasticism Constant threat of civil wars (and foreign wars)


III. A Century of Religious Wars : III. A Century of Religious Wars The German wars of religion (c. 1540–1555) Charles V Attempts to reestablish Catholic unity failed Catholic princes feared Charles would curb their independence Protestant Alliance called Schmalkaldic League defeated, but forces of Reformation couldn’t be stopped Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) Cuius regio, eius religio (as the ruler, so the religion) Catholic princes rule Catholic territories Protestant princes rule Protestant territories


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) The French wars of religion (1562–1598) By 1562, Calvinists comprised 10-20 percent of the population of France Conversion of aristocratic women Won over their husbands, who usually controlled large private armies Louis I, prince of Condé and Gaspard de Coligny leaders of the Huguenots 1562: struggle between Condé and the ultra-Catholic duke of Guise Guise had attacked a Protestant worship service A political and religious struggle Warfare dragged on until 1572


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) Henry of Navarre (Protestant) to marry the Catholic sister of the king Catherine de Medici panicked Plotted with Catholic Guise faction to kill all Huguenot leaders St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572) Two to three thousand Parisian Protestants slaughtered (ten thousand more across France) Henry IV (r. 1589–1610) Henry of Navarre “Paris is worth a Mass” Initiated the Bourbon dynasty


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) 1598: the Edict of Nantes Catholicism established as the official religion Huguenots allowed to worship, attend universities, and serve as public officials Divided France into religious “spheres of influence” The revolt of the Netherlands (1566–1609) Southern Netherlands—grew prosperous from trade and manufacture 1560: Charles V ceded all territories to his son, Philip


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) Philip II (r. 1556–1598) Used the Netherlands as a source of income to pursue Spanish affairs French Calvinists spread to Antwerp, converting others along the way William the Silent Leader of the Catholic nobility Appealed to Philip to allow toleration for Calvinists Radical Protestant mobs ransacked Catholic churches


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) Philip dispatched an army under the duke of Alva The Council of Blood (reign of terror) The 1609 truce Implicit recognition of the northern Dutch Republic England and the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1618–1648) Sources of antagonism a. The English under Elizabeth b. English economic interests opposed to Spanish interests


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) England determined to resist any Spanish attempt to block England’s trade with the Low Countries Naval contests in the Atlantic The “Invincible Armada” English naval victory—Spanish defeat Protestant enthusiasm “Good Queen Bess” The Elizabethan Age


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) Began as a war between Catholics and Protestants in the H.R.E. Ended as an international struggle transcending religion Causes Religious conflict Ferdinand (Catholic Habsburg) elected king of Protestant Bohemia


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) Protestantism suppressed in Bohemia Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632) Lutheran king of Sweden Marched into Germany (1630), championed the Protestants Earned the support of Catholic princes Wished to see religious balance restored Did not want to submit to Ferdinand II Subsidized by France 1632: Adolphus killed in battle


III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) : III. A Century of Religious Wars (Contd.) 1635–1648: war pits France and Sweden against Austria and Spain The Peace of Westphalia (1648) Marked the emergence of France as a predominant continental power The Germans and Austrian Habsburgs as greatest losers


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty From certainty to doubt The New World The destruction of religious uniformity Political allegiances were threatened The search for new foundations Witchcraft accusations and the power of the state The mortal threat of witchcraft 1494: Pope Innocent VIII ordered papal inquisitors to detect and eliminate witchcraft


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) Torture increased the number of accused witches who confessed to alleged crimes Witchcraft trials were European phenomena—not confined to Catholic countries Fear of witchcraft most intense where secular and religious powers were close 1660 and after: witchcraft accusations died down Conclusions Witch mania reflected the fears Europeans held about the devil Reflected the growing conviction that only the state had the power to protect people


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) The search for authority Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) A searching skepticism The Essays (essai—trial, experiment) Que sais je? (what do I know?)—very little for certain What is true to one nation may be false to another Moderation—no government or religion is really perfect; no belief is worth fighting for Helped combat fanaticism and religious intolerance


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) Jean Bodin (1530–1596) Looked to resolve the disorder of his own day Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576) Absolute governmental sovereignty Once a state is constituted it should brook no opposition Nation-states can in no way be limited governments Resistance to the state leads to anarchy Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) The doctrine of political absolutism


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) Leviathan (1651) Any form of government that protects subject and propertymight act as sovereign The state exists to rule over atomistic individuals Pessimistic view of human nature The sovereign can tyrannize as he likes A new science of politics Political obligation grounded in empirical observation, not tradition or divine right


V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) : V. The Problem of Doubt and the Quest for Certainty (contd.) Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Began as a mathematician and scientific rationalist Abandoned science as a result of a conversion experience Became a Jansenist (puritanical faction within Catholicism) Pensées (Thoughts) Faith alone can show the way to salvation Terror, anguish, and awe in the face of evil and eternity


VI. Literature and the Arts : VI. Literature and the Arts Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616) Don Quixote The knight-errant (Quixote) and the practical man (Sancho Panza) Human nature—idealism and realism Elizabethan and Jacobean drama Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593) Tamburlaine and Doctor Faustus Larger-than-life heroes His heroes meet unhappy ends because there are limits to human striving


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) Ben Jonson (c. 1572–1637) Wrote corrosive comedies exposing human vice and foibles Volpone Shows people behaving like deceitful and lustful animals Alchemist An attack on quackery and gullibility William Shakespeare (1564–1616) His reputation as an author Forty plays, 150 sonnets, and two long narrative poems


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) The gift of expression and profound analysis of human character c. First period The world is orderly and just Romeo and Juliet, A Mid-summer Night’s Dream, Twelfth Night, As You Like It, and Much Ado About Nothing Second period Bitterness, pathos, and the search for the meaning of existence Hamlet, Measure for Measure, All’s Well That Ends Well, Macbeth, and King Lear


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) Third period The spirit of reconciliation and peace The Tempest John Milton (1608–1674) Wrote the official defense of Charles I’s beheading Justified Puritan positions in contemporary affairs Loved the Greek and Roman classics (Lycidas) Paradise Lost Epic poem based on Genesis


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) The creation and the fall of man Created the character of Satan Mannerism Italian and Spanish painting, 1540–1600 Fascinated the viewer with special effects A blending of two styles Raphael Pontormo (1494–1557) and Bronzino (1503–1572) Bordering on the bizarre and surreal


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) b. Michelangelo Tintoretto (1518–1594)—large canvases devoted to religious subjects El Greco (c. 1541–1614)—a deeply mystical Catholic art Baroque art and architecture A school of painting, sculpture, and Retained the dramatic and irregular Avoided the bizarre Aimed to instill a sense of the affirmative Originated in Rome


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) Expressed the ideals of the Counter-Reformation papacy and the Jesuits Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) Architect and sculptor Combined classical elements to express aggressive relentlessness and great power Experimented with church facades built “in depth” Incited response rather than passive observation Diego Velázquez (1599–1660) Southern-European Baroque


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) Court painter in Madrid More-restrained thoughtfulness The Maids of Honor Dutch painting in the “golden age” The greatness and wretchedness of man Peter Brueghel (c. 1525–1569) Portrayed the busy life of the peasantry Peasant Wedding, Peasant Wedding Dance, and Harvesters Appalled by the intolerance he witnessed during Calvinist riots and Spanish repression in the Netherlands


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) The Blind Leading the Blind Massacre of the Innocents Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) Painted thousands of canvases glorifying resurgent Catholicism Reveled in the sumptuous extravagance of the Baroque The Horrors of War


VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) : VI. Literature and the Arts (contd.) Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) Lived in staunchly-Calvinist Holland An active portrait painter who knew how to flatter his subjects A life of personal tragedy Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer and The Polish Rider


VII. Conclusion : VII. Conclusion Undermined confidence in traditional social, religious, and political structures Skepticism and the search for meaning The new power of the state


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