Week 8

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Personality Traits such as sociability, independence, dominance, anxiety Consistent across situations and over time Self-Concept: Perceptions of self Self Esteem: Evaluation of self Identity: Overall sense of who you are

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Sigmund Freud Three parts of the personality Selfish Id, Rational Ego, Moralistic Superego Stages of psychosexual development Biological, ending at sexual maturity Personality formed during the first 5 years Child anxieties become adult traits

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Erik Erikson Emphasized Social influences Rational ego Life-span growth Crisis-oriented stages result from Maturational forces, social demands

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Psychometric Theory Personality: A set of traits Individual differences in each trait Measurement approach The “Big Five” – universal and stable openness to experience conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism Evidence of genetic basis and universality

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Personality inventory I see myself as: 1 = disagree strongly 1 extraverted, enthusiastic 2 =- disagree moderately 2 critical, quarrelsome 3 = disagree a little 3 dependable, self-disciplined 4 = neither agree nor disagree 4 anxious, easily upset 5 = agree a little 5 open to new experiences, complex 5 = agree moderately 6 reserved, quiet 7 = agree strongly 7 sympathetic, warm 8 disorganized, careless 9 calm, emotionally stable 10.conventional, uncreative

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Comparison Social Learning theory Situational influences Environmental emphasis Psychoanalytic: Universal, age-related changes Psychometric Trait theory Continuity (stability)

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Development of Self Joint attention – 9 mo Self-recognition - 15-24 mo Categorical self – 18-24 mo Based on Cognitive development Social experience: Looking-glass self

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Temperament Buss & Plomin Emotionality, Activity, Sociability (EAS) Genetically based – ID twins But also cross-cultural differences

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Temperament Thomas & Chess A set of tendencies to respond in predictable ways, across situations and across time Easy Difficult Slow to warm-up

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What is temperament? Where do the characteristics come from? Temperament is behavioral style: the how of behavior rather than the what or why. Temperamental differences are present at birth; they influence how children behave toward individuals and objects in their environments and how they are affected by the environment. Temperament characteristics explain in part how individuals with many stresses may do well while some with little or no stress have difficulty.

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How can professionals help parents deal with infants and children who have difficult temperament characteristics? There are four basic ways to use temperament information to help children and their caregivers: a) Education about the existence of temperament differences; b) Individual behavioral assessment of a particular child, using a standardized questionnaire; c) Environmental intervention; systematically changing the environment to accommodate temperamental characteristics; d) Support groups to share experiences, discuss parenting techniques, and strategies for coping with a spirited youngster.

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How do temperament characteristics affect parenting? While some infants are mild and joyful others are irritable and cry persistently. Easy babies are so pleasant to care for they may receive (and give back) loads of affection and attention. The fussy, spirited child may scream and kick when given attention. As development unfolds, the fussy child may feel aversive to the caregiver and may receive less nurturance and affection. This is a striking reality for some parents who have an easy baby followed by a feisty one (or vice-versa). Many parents feel guilty and wonder if they have done something to harm their child because the spirited ones are so much more difficult to raise.

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Are spirited infants and children more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems? Temperament may make certain children in certain environments more likely to have these problems. These 'risk factors' occur when there is a mismatch between the child's temperament and some demand in the environment-a poor fit between the child's temperament and the expectations for behavior in the situation. 'Easy' babies and children may have 'protective' factors where mismatches are rare and the rate of conflict is low. Goodness of Fit - p. 286

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The nine characteristics are (NYLS): Activity level -the amount of physical motion exhibited during the day Persistence -the extent of continuation of behavior with or without interruption Distractibility -the ease of being interrupted by sound, light, etc unrelated behavior Initial Reaction -response to novel situations, whether approaching or withdrawing Adaptability -the ease of changing behavior in a socially desirable direction Mood -the quality of emotional expression, positive or negative Intensity - the amount of energy exhibited in emotional expression Sensitivity -the degree to which the person reacts to light, sound, etc. Regularity -the extent to which patterns of eating, sleeping, elimination, etc. are consistent or inconsistent from day to day.

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In 1968 William B. Carey, developed the first practical measure of temperament, the Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Since then he and several associates have authored a series of temperament questionnaires assessing the nine NYLS temperament characteristics in infants as young as one month of age and in children through the end of the twelfth year. The Carey Temperament Scales. Activity: 4-11 months – the infant moves about much during diapering and dressing 3-7 years – the child speaks so quickly that it is sometimes difficult to understand him/her Adaptability: 3-7 years – the child will avoid misbehavior if punished firmly once or twice

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Childhood Self By age 2 Use of “I,” “me,” “mine” Physical characteristics By age 8 Social identity Personality trait terms Social comparison

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Self-perception Self-Esteem: Multidimensional Harter’s research on self-perception Children rated themselves on: Scholastic competence (feeling smart, doing well in school) Social competence (being popular, liked by others) Behavioral competence (behaving appropriately, not getting in trouble) Athletic competence (being good at sports) Physical appearance (feeling good-looking)

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SELF-ESTEEM EXAMPLES I don’t feel anyone else is better than I I am free of shame, blame, and guilt I am a happy, carefree person I have no need to prove I am as good as or better than others I do not have a strong need for people to pay attention to me or like what I do Losing does not upset me or make me feel ‘less than’ others

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Influences on Self-Esteem Competence differences Social feedback (positive or negative) Genetic Parents (cross-cultural) Warm and democratic Enforce clearly stated rules

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Self-esteem and Academic success Antisocial behavior (e.g. bullying) Physical attractiveness Sex,drugs and rock-and-roll

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Adolescent Integration Different selves in different situations Storm & stress in about 20% Move to middle school Often difficult Especially for females Most maintain high self-esteem

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A Sense of Identity Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion Adolescence Identity crisis Moratorium Marcia’s Identity Statuses Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Achieved

i: 

i Which best represents “identity diffusion”? A Fred plans to be a teacher because his parents and siblings are all teachers. B Erica doesn’t really know what she wants to be when she “grows up” and couldn’t care less about even exploring the possibilities. C Thandi has taken a battery of interest inventories and is exploring different majors at the university, thinking about possibilities for her future career. D Lee has talked with career counsellors, his parents, peers and instructors, and has determined that he is best suited for a career in teaching. He is now doing his student teaching.

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Issues of Identity Few gender differences Female focus of concerns Sexuality Interpersonal relations Career vs. family roles Takes more time overall Timing of different domains

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Influences on Identity Formation Cognitive growth Relationship with parents Parental rejection/neglect – diffusion Parental authority - foreclosure Experiences outside home College: Extended moratorium Cultural context

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Adult: Self-Conceptions and Culture Individualistic culture Self-reliance & independence Generalizable traits Maintaining high self-esteem Collectivist Culture Interdependence, social harmony, self-critical Social roles and identity Traits specific to situation

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Self-Concept and Aging Stable self-esteem Generally good Ability to adjust ideal to real self Evaluate self with different standards Comparisons with age-mates Related to stable personality traits

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Changes in Personality Cross-sectional studies show changes Longitudinal/Cross-cultural studies Adulthood: Achievement and confidence Older adults Decreases - activity Increases – introversion

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Influences on Personality Change Heredity Childhood experiences Stability of environment Biological factors (disease) Poor person-environment fit

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Adulthood – Erikson & Research Men: Identity then intimacy Women: Identity & intimacy together Generativity supported Integrity supported Life review

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Midlife Crisis Stereotype Painful self evaluation Dramatic life changes Desire to find youth Erikson: not really Levinson: questioning “Life Structure” Trait stability - not change

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Vocational Development Young Adults: Career exploration Thirties: Settling down Forties & Fifties: Career peaks Older workers Competent, satisfied and positive Selective optimization w/compensation

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Retirement Average age: 63 Adjustment phases Success factors Disengagement vs. Activity Theory Person-environment fit