Glass : Glass Kay Tam
Professor Raquel R. Pinderhughes
Urban Studies Program
Race, Poverty and the Environmental
San Francisco State University
Spring 2003
Introduction : Introduction This presentation focuses on glass.
It is designed to interpret the potential impacts of the processes associated with glass. It takes you through the cradle to grave lifecycle of glass, paying particular attention to the social, environmental and public health impacts of these processes.
Presentation organization : We start by looking at the natural resources for making glass.
We then go to the glass making processes and its utilization.
This is followed by the disposal of glass waste.
I will analyze the social, environmental and health impacts associated with each processes throughout my presentation.
Lastly, I will talk about the importance of environmental justice in the life cycle of glass and discuss with you how can we address the problems. Presentation organization
Now, we start by looking at the natural resources for making glass. : Now, we start by looking at the natural resources for making glass. Distribution of natural resources
Formation
Purposes for utilization
Extraction process
Environmental and Social effects of extraction process
Natural Resources : Natural Resources Silica sand 72%
Soda Ash 17%
Lime 5%
72% 17% 5% 6%
Silica Sand : Silica Sand
Silica Sand : Silica Sand Three of most common rock forming minerals on earth
Chemically named: quartz sand / rock crystal
Properties:
Extremely heat durable
Chemical stack resistance
Formation of Silica Sand : Formation of Silica Sand Naturally:
Mechanical & chemical weathering of quartz-bearing igneous & metamorphic rocks
Chemically weathering:
Less stable minerals
break down to become silica sand
More stable minerals
release to environment
Carry by wind / wave
Sort by wave & stream action to form pure silica sand
Location & Integration of Silica Sand : Location & Integration of Silica Sand It is found below thin layers of overburden & soil as unconsolidated deposits
It is abundant resource on earth crusts (44%) and occur throughout the world.
Best known place in U.S.:
NE of town of Hudson Bay along the Red Deer River
World resources of Silica Sand : World resources of Silica Sand Silica sand resources is abundant on the world.
Its extraction is limited by
geographic distribution
quality requirements for some uses
environmental restrictions
Extraction of theses resources is dependent on whether it is economic and are controlled by the location of population centers
http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silica/780397.pdf Fig. 1
Purposes for the Utilize of Silica Sand : Purposes for the Utilize of Silica Sand History:
Glass making & metallurgical activities few thousands years BC ago
Key raw material in ceramics, foundry & glass industrial revolution
Today:
Glass making, foundry casting, ceramics, filtration, specialist building applications, leisure ( e.g. golf course), filters in numerous products, plastics, the manufacture of chemicals, metal & refractory, as addictives in horticultural & agricultural products & simulating oil production
Purposes for the Utilize of Silica Sand Cont’ : Purposes for the Utilize of Silica Sand Cont’ Important for today’s information technology:
Raw material for silicon chips
Plastics of computer mouses
Which communities depend on silica sand? : Which communities depend on silica sand? Every communities depend upon it for different purposes
Especially important for developing & developed countries:
For further technological improvement & development
Extraction of Silicon Sand : Extraction of Silicon Sand Stripping of overburden (topsoil & vegetation) by bulldozers & scraper
Wet separation by washing the sand, passing through screens to remove roots & other organic matter
Gravity separation to separate silica sand from regular sand
Finished silica sand is transported by trucks to plants for processing
Oversized materials & residual clay are returned to mined pits
Soda Ash : Soda Ash
Soda Ash : Soda Ash Anhydrous sodium carbonate
Texture: soft
Color: grayish & white
Appearance: lump / powder in nature
Formation of Soda Ash : Formation of Soda Ash Naturally:
Erosion of igneous rock form sodium deposits
Transport by waters as runoffs & collect in basins
When sodium comes in contact w/ CO2, precipitates out sodium carbonate
Location & Integration of Soda Ash : Location & Integration of Soda Ash Integrated as sodium –rich waters (brines) / extensive beds of trona interbedded w/ sodium minerals
Large soda ash deposits:
U.S, Mexico, Canada, Kenya, Botswana, Uganda, Peru, Germany, India, Egypt, S. Africa & Turkey
World’s largest trona deposit:
Green River Basin of Wyoming
estimate to have 47 billion tons of soda ash
U.S. soda ash deposits : U.S. soda ash deposits Owens Lake & Searles Lake
Estimates to have 815 million of soda ash
www.ansac.com/100_our_story/ 103_supply.asp Fig.2 World’s largest
trona deposit
Trona Deposits of California : Trona Deposits of California
Owens Lake Trona mine at Searles Lake Fig.3 Fig.4
Purposes for the Utilize of Soda Ash : Purposes for the Utilize of Soda Ash History:
Early Egypt: make glass & soap
Early Roman: make glass, bread & pharmaceuticals (medicine) purpose to cure choric & skin rashes
Purposes for the Utilize of Soda Ash Cont’ : Purposes for the Utilize of Soda Ash Cont’ Important merchandise for U.S.:
Export of Soda Ash of American According to the U.S Geological Survey, Americas soda Ash production is approximately 11.5 million tons/ year, of which 4.5 million tons are exported : Asia Export of Soda Ash of American According to the U.S Geological Survey, Americas soda Ash production is approximately 11.5 million tons/ year, of which 4.5 million tons are exported Fig. 5 www.isonex.com/glass_article_5-97.pdf
Extraction of Soda Ash : Extraction of Soda Ash Quarrying of trona bed that contain sodium
Human 1st recorded extraction of soda ash ocurred during discovery of Wyoming trona deposit
Could be manufactured synthetically through Solvary process by using salt, ammonia & limestone
The Solvay process for the manufacture of Soda Ash (NaHCO3). : The Solvay process for the manufacture of Soda Ash (NaHCO3). cwx.prenhall.com/petrucci/medialib/ media_portfolio/22.html Fig.6
Lime : Lime
Lime : Lime Include hydrated lime & quicklime
Only quicklime can use to make glass
Location & Integration of Lime : Location & Integration of Lime Underneath the topsoil , ach, & siltstone
Associated in:
Limestone
Marine organisms on seabed e.g. seashells
Location of rich Limestone deposit in the world: : Location of rich Limestone deposit in the world:
North & South Islands of New Zealand www.med.govt.nz/crown_minerals/ minerals/gnsmaps/ Fig. 8
Export of Lime : Export of Lime 56 % of lime in U.S. is produced at companies in Alabama, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, Kentucky and Pennsylvania (about 11.5 millions tons annually
Other nations producing lime for export:
Canada, Mexico, China, France, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, the United Kingdom and Japan.
Formation of Lime : Formation of Lime Marine organisms dissolve CO2 & extract Calcium from seawater to from calcium carbonate
Buried under sediments of seabed after death
Limestone formed under heat & pressure on the remains of marine organisms limestone
Purposes for the Utilize of Lime : Purposes for the Utilize of Lime Historical Use:
Ancient Egyptian civilization used lime to make plaster and mortar.
Nowadays:
Use extensively for: glass making, the pulp & paper industry & steel mills
Other uses: municipal & industrial water / wastewater treatment, as an addictive for road stabilization & construction projects
In U.S., more than 90 % of lime production is for chemical and industrial uses
Extraction of Lime : Extraction of Lime Quarry of limestone at trona bed
Then, transported to crush plants by trucks / rail
Undergo Calcination process:
heating limestone or chalk (Ca3CO2) in kiln till 900 degree celsius
CO2 is emitted in this process and calcium oxide (lime) is produced. Initial extraction process Blocks Ready to Saw Chopped into Blocks Transport to processing
factories by truck Calcination Process Processed Lime
Effects pose by the Extraction of Mineral Sites for making glass : Effects pose by the Extraction of Mineral Sites for making glass Location of mineral sites: mostly located in developing /undeveloped countries near poor communities
Results in social & environmental impacts
Environmental Impacts : Environmental Impacts Extraction may remain
large amount of rubbish
on the extracted sites,
causing serious
environmental
pollution and
degradation Fig. 8 Fig, 9
Environmental impacts : Environmental impacts Water Contamination:
Blasting & digging during extraction process produce wastes & easily get into the water as runoff
In waste disposal activities, systems direct waste into rivers & tributaries
Inadequate rehabilitation of disturbed areas remain wastes behind the sites
Photo taken by Kira Henschel at
Wisconsin mining site at May, 1995 Nordik Mine Site in 1995 Fig. 10
Slide37 : Nordik Mine - Drainage Downstream from Tailings in 1995
Contaminated water of mining site being pumped to a Lake
Environmental impacts cont’: : Environmental impacts cont’: Soil disturbance:
stripping of the overburden will loosen the soil & cause soil erosion
loss of water in soil through evaporation
Loss of nutrient & minerals in soil:
Wet separation process in the manufacturing process of silica sand will wash away minerals and nutrients in soil, that is important for vegetation growth, e.g. lack of magnesium for plant in soil will result in chronic
Environment disruption resulted from mineral extraction process : Environment disruption resulted from mineral extraction process Mineral & sand mining occurred on land has cleared pasture Fig.11 www.cablesands.com.au/cswa/ company-profile.asp
Social Impacts from extraction process: : Social Impacts from extraction process:
Contamination of ground water for nearby communities:
Runoffs from extraction sites contaminate the water & may transport to nearby communities
Dinking water & agricultural resources is polluted
Disease:
Communities may get diseases through consuming the contaminated water / seafood
New diseases may be introduced to communities through mine workers from communities far away
Social Impacts from extraction process cont’ : Social Impacts from extraction process cont’ Fodder, fuel wood and glazing communities:
These businesses being affected due to environmental pollution e.g. water & soil
Agricultural communities:
Water for irrigation is being contaminated, loss of water resources for drainage
Plants & crops die and cattle may get disease
Local communities and villages:
Loss in food security for self-supply communities
Slide42 : Disruption of local economics system:
Communities nearby cannot depend on their land for production for export and economics benefits e.g. case of limestone mining in Uttaranchal
Contamination sites requires large capital for rehabilitation
May require communities living around the extraction sites to pay for rehabilitation
Taxpayers may also need to pay for part of the rehabilitation program of disturbed sites
Transportation of natural resources for glass manufacturing plant: : Transportation of natural resources for glass manufacturing plant: Development of transportation systems, building of roads and extension of transportation network
Allow natural resources to transport to plants further away from sites than in the past
Places nearby: trucks or railways
Places far away: ship
Benefit:
Help developing the transportation in some area
No significant side effects pose to the environment & communities
Distribution of minerals to the locations : Distribution of minerals to the locations Most of the removed ore are transported away from their mine and distributed to their processing plants by trucks.
After discussing the effects of extraction process for making glass, we will talk about the Manufacturing Process of Glass : After discussing the effects of extraction process for making glass, we will talk about the Manufacturing Process of Glass Glass making historical development
Today’s glass making process
Impacts of glass manufacturing process
Development of Glass Making : Development of Glass Making First automated bottle machine was created in 1905
Nowadays, most of the glass containers are manufactured by technological machines at large, automated factories & control by computers
cheaper and better
in quality A Float glass
Plant
Historical Glass Manufacturing process: : Historical Glass Manufacturing process: Historical method:
heating and blowing
shape the glass products by hand
requires high skills & is time consuming
therefore using glass is considered as luxury in our old world
Today’s Glass Manufacturing Process: : Today’s Glass Manufacturing Process: Silica sand, limestone, soda ash and cullet (recycled glass or broken glass) are keep dry and cool in a batcher house in silos or compartments
Mixing and weighting into proper proportion
Send to furnaces in hoppers
operated by natural gas
heat the mixture at 1300-1600 degrees Celsius into soften or molten state Fig.12 www.glassforever.co.uk/howisglassmade/
Slide49 : 4. Molding --- molten glass flows to forming machine to mold into desire shapes
5. Annealing lehrs --- reheating the glass in an oven
to ensure even cooling of glass for strengthening of the products
6. Cooling process --- Cool for 30 min to an hour for safe to handle.
7. Glass products are then decorated,
inspected again and finally packaged
and shipped to our customers. glass furnace
cooling systems
Effects from glass manufacturing process : Effects from glass manufacturing process Workers:
Dangerous & harmful to workers if breakage occurs while glass holds heated or corrosive, can result in serious injuries
Glass making process occurs at high temperature
Glass can broke easily under pressure, impact or thermal shock
Prevention: wear protective
clothing and gloves to prevent
those injuries
Environmental impact : Environmental impact Environmental degradation:
Air pollution:
raw materials used for glass making
decompose at furnaces produce large
volume of gas such as carbon dioxide
combustion of gas for energy production
release large amount of pollutant gases, such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Green house effect:
green house gases release from the plants increase global temperature and can form acid rain
Environmental Impact : Environmental Impact Aquatic Life
Hot water is released during glass making process
increase water temperature and dissolve oxygen in water
change aquatic habitat
and threaten aquatic life
Social Impact : Social Impact Human Health
Breathing in air pollutants
release by the glass
manufacturing plant can result
in serious health impact
E.g. respiratory or lung diseases
Economy
Affect fishing and recreational businesses due to changes in aquatic habitat
Then, we will now go to the Utilization of Glass : Then, we will now go to the Utilization of Glass History of glass
How is the utilization of glass importance for communities?
Global marketing and consumption status of glass
The impacts of glass products
History of Human Using Glass: : History of Human Using Glass: People have used glass dating back to 5000 B.C
Ancient Egypt: earliest use of glass, for royalty and priest as luxuries
Usually use as containers or for decoration purposes in human history
Utilization of Glass is important for Human Development: : Utilization of Glass is important for Human Development: Important for historical and modern
human development:
Prism and lenses: to study light, important to further induce science theories. E.g. Issac Newton used glass prism and lenses to explain the color spectrum of light in 1672
Magnifying glass: for astronomy study, without glass, we are not able to observe stars and planets in space clearly
Glasses: make lenses in spectacles that helped people to overcome sight defect
Main components in many new and advance technology devices: major components of most modern communications systems, fiber optics systems, is also depend on the transmission of light through glass filaments
Different type of glass: : Different type of glass: practical glass
industrial glass
inspiration glass
glass of science and medicine
Examples of today’s glass products: : Examples of today’s glass products: · Containers (jars and bottles)
· Flat glass (windows, vehicle glazing, mirrors, etc.)
· Lighting glass (fluorescent tubes, light bulbs, etc.)
· Tableware (drinking glasses, bowls, lead crystal, etc.) · Laboratory equipments (test tubes, cylinders, measuring flasks, etc.)
· TV tubes and screens
· Decorative glass
· Fiberglass
· Optical glass
· Vacuum flasks
Distribution process of glass products : Distribution process of glass products Glass product is distributed to different consumers’ hand through trading:
by commercial businesses
according to the demands of people all over the world
Consumption of Glass : Consumption of Glass Three largest consumers:
glass packaging (43%)
domestic commodities
construction industry
National Glass Usage http://www.bisnis.doc.gov/bisnis/country/000727glass_samara.htm Fig. 13
Export & Import of Glass : Export & Import of Glass Largest Importer of past decades: Europe and Australia
Today largest Importer : U.S.
China and Indonesia has increased their import of glass dramatically
Glass Industries : Glass Industries The World Glass Industry has a gross production value totaling $82.3 billion Fig. 14 www.icem.org/events/ bled/matdocen.htm
Glass Consumption in Europe : Glass Consumption in Europe Europe is one of the large importer of glass. Through observing the consumption pattern of glass in different countries of Europe, we can get an image of how large is the human consumption of glass is: Average glass consumption in kilo/annum 1990-1995/capita in different countries When considering the whole EU, projections suggest that glass consumption will increase between 24 and 53% up to the year 2010, using the year 1995 as a base year (European Topic Centre on Waste, 1998). Fig. 15 waste.eionet.eu.int/activities/0000219.html
Consumption of glass in Europe cont’ : Consumption of glass in Europe cont’ European Topic Center of 1998 suggested that the average increase in glass consumption for the EU and Norway during 1990 to 1996 has been increased by 13.6%
It is predicted that the average increase in glass consumption for the EU and Norway during 1990 to 1996 has been increased by 13.6%
We can see that the demand of glass in our society never decreases and the consumption of glass increases every year
Impacts result in consumption process of glass : Impacts result in consumption process of glass Characteristics of glass:
Non-biodegradable (remains in our environment and do not decompose easily by itself )
Durable & long lasting
Therefore, do not have significant environmental & social impact during consuming process
But could result in serious impact after disposal
Slide66 : While recycling has increased by almost 50% from 5 million to 7,4 million tonnes per year, the amount of waste glass for disposal has only decreased by 12 % (6,7 million to 5,9 million tones) due to the simultaneous increase in waste glass. Fig. 16 waste.eionet.eu.int/activities/0000219.html
Finally, we will discuss the Disposal of Glass : Finally, we will discuss the Disposal of Glass
Glass Waste : Glass Waste Most of glass waste is generated from glass packaging
Glass waste generated from packing is among the top forth in the world. Waste (mPEMwdk2000 per kg of packaging Fig. 17 http://www.mst.dk/project/NyViden/2000/08030000.htm
How is glass waste treated? : How is glass waste treated? Landfill
Recycle
Vitrification
Landfill : Landfill If people dump useless glass
into the garbage and mix it with
other rubbish, it will be treated as regular waste
Regular waste will then dump into waste dumping site or use for landfill
Glass waste will finally break down and decay into sand form naturally under erosion or weathering and once again return to our ecosystem.
Effects result from landfill : Effects result from landfill Environmental impact:
Raise of sea level
drown lowland areas
Leachate
Landfill gas formation
Example: Landfill at Seoul : Example: Landfill at Seoul The Sudokwon landfill site at Seoul (S. Korea) covers 20,749,000 square meters Construction of the Sudokwon
Landfill at Seoul Large area of sea
is filled by land Fig. 18 smg.metro.seoul.kr:9000/ waste/part4.html
Statistic of Sudokwon landfill : Statistic of Sudokwon landfill Leachate:
2,697m3/day(before soil covering)
866m3/day(after soil covering)
Landfill gas:
167m3/minute (in 2001) Fig. 19 smg.metro.seoul.kr:9000/ waste/part4.html
Social impact from Landfill of glass waste : Social impact from Landfill of glass waste Huge amount of glass waste produce by human increases the need of land to get rid of the
use up precious landfill space, decreasing possible areas that can be used for landfills of other waste, increasing the need to establish new expensive landfills
Leachates & gas releases from the landfill site degrade communities’ living condition & harmful to human health.
Taxpayers are responsible for the final costs of landfill
Seoul City invested 37.3 billion and central government 15 billion in their landfill project.
Migration of population from lowland areas due to raise of sea level
Recycling of Glass : Recycling of Glass Recycle of glass is mostly used for packaging
Recycle process
Myths of Recycling Glass : Myths of Recycling Glass Refillable bottles require more energy to make as they are about 50% heavier than non-refillable bottles to prevent breakage, and to transport them over long distances to sparsely located processing facilities. Since the raw materials of glass are abundant and cheap, recycling glass only consumes and wastes the more valuable non-renewable fossil fuels (Warmer Bulletin November, 1993)
It takes more energy to collect and recycle glass into another bottle than to make one from raw materials. However, the energy requirement to produce a refillable bottle will decrease with the number of returnable trips, and an eight-trip bottle can reduce the energy requirement by about two-thirds compared to a non-returnable bottle (Porteous, 1977)
Effects of recycling glass : Effects of recycling glass Environmental impact:
release from the recycling plant
Air pollution: air pollutants may
Social impact:
location of most recycling plants are built within low-income neighborhoods because of cheap labor and less strict regulation
Health impact: may affect respiratory system if breath in pollutants
Case: Local residents at Mercedes Arumbula claimed that the neighborhood and kids have developed asthma once the plant was built in their community
Virtification : Virtification Definition: a new technology has been discovered to use recycle glass for radioactive waste management
Process:
melt glass together with radioactive waste in barrels or some other container
glass will then bind up with radioactive contamination into a huge glass block
radioactive waste is bond by the glass and become immobilized
keep radioactive waste from interacting with water, stop spreading the waste
Fig. 20 www.vitrification.com/ vitrification.htm
Good & Bad of Virtification : Good & Bad of Virtification Benefit of virtication:
Prevent radioactive waste pollution
Minimize the amount of glass waste
produced
Increase the efficiency of glass use (to stabilize hazardous waste)
High volume reduction of waste
Landfill space can be saved Volume percent of vitrified product
compared to the original waste volume Fig. 21 www.vitrification.com/ vitrification.htm
Slide80 : Negative impacts of vitrification:
virtrified glass will finally decay after years and radioactive materials will have chance to get into our environment and cause serious problem
High cost:
vitrification costs may range from $80 to $165 per ton of soil processed for a facility processing 100 tons per day.
So, why is the life cycle of glass important for environmental justice? : So, why is the life cycle of glass important for environmental justice?
Environmental Justice : Environmental Justice Through studying life cycle of glass can help to raise the social awareness of the importance of environmental justice:
Social & Environmental impact result from:
Extraction of raw material for glass manufacturing
Glass manufacturing process
Glass consumption process
Disposal of glass waste
How are communities affected by these impacts?
Why are this happening?
How are they being affected?
Who are being affected?
Disproportional distribution between marginalize population in our society
Color, race & social class
What is our priority?
Our good life & terrible situation experienced by disadvantage communities
Disproportional distribution between marginalize population : Disproportional distribution between marginalize population Why are there disproportional distribution?
environmental and social decisions are based on unequal consideration among communities that result in certain communities experiencing more serious environmental and social problems
How are communities being affected?
Different communities may experience disproportional distribution of consumption pattern, environmental pollution and inequalities legistration
Who are making benefit? : Who are making benefit? Most of the glass consumers are the middle or high class of the society
Big money enterprises such as industries, large corporations and government are gaining economics benefit through trading of glass
Who are facing the problem? : Who are facing the problem? Most of the people living at the affected communities are less educated and always alienate from political power because of their own abilities (such as language or don’t know where to appeal for it), and also some social and economic reasons
Communities usually experience less strict legislations and sometimes may experience unequal legal
More likely locate near colored races & low-income class, far less to be seen in rich or highly educated communities
How to address the problem? : How to address the problem? Big money enterprises and power authorities:
Incorporate environmental justice into decision-making process
Correct the attitudes of the big money enterprises and power authorities:
Every community has the right to enjoy and live in a safe and enjoyable environment
Should respect the human right of disadvantage communities, should not gain advantages over the weak ones
Encourage forces help the disadvantage communities to solve and minimize the social and environmental problems
How to address the problem cont’: : How to address the problem cont’: Government:
legal legislations are needed to protect the weak ones
Legislation should be made fairly that all race, class and communities are considered at the same level in the legislation under the principle of environmental justice in order to protect the right of every race and community
Develop infrastructure to ensure community can have safe place for the increasing colonial activity
E.g. Infrastructure that have sufficient drainage & sanitary system
Consumers:
Control their materialistic desire & be more considerate for other communities who are facing the problems, think in a more globally way
Cut down unnecessary consumption:
save raw materials and lands for future & next generations, decrease environmental pollution and social impact
Global Change : Global Change The whole world need to be changed !
Cost benefit analysis need to be replaced by cultural precautionary principle
Shift in the way that we make decisions (e.g. when deciding where to place the waste site)
Take every communities into consideration when making decisions
Consider if the situation is safe for every community in decision-making process
Change in the way that individual consider as good life
Colonialism is unacceptable
Consider good life globally, but not individual good life
References : References Bolen, W. P. (1997, February). Sand and Gravel. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silica/780397.pdf
ANSAC. (2002).California Soda Ash Deposits. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from www.ansac.com/100_our_story/ 103_supply.asp
Philips, T. Bishopwebworks. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from
science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ lms/owenslake.htm
Keith, John. Mineral Resource in Dessert. 10/29/97. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from pubs.usgs.gov/gip/ deserts/minerals/
Aitala, R. & Aitala, M. (1997, June).Soda Ash in the USA. Glass International. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from www.isonex.com/glass_article_5-97.pdf
Petruccl, R. H. (2002). The Solvay process for the manufacture of NaHCO3. A Pearson Company. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from
cwx.prenhall.com/petrucci/medialib/ media_portfolio/22.html
Economic Development. (2001, Aug 21). New Zealand aggregate sources. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from www.med.govt.nz/crown_minerals/ minerals/gnsmaps
Henschel, Kira & Alsom, Rio. (May, 1995). Mining Impact Coalition of Wisconsin Inc. Retrieved 05/19/2003, from www.miningimpacts.net/ micpic3.html
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Cable Sands & RZM. www.cablesands.com.au/cswa/ company-profile.asp
RockWare Glass. How is Glass Made? www.glassforever.co.uk/howisglassmade/
Merkuova, E. (2000). National Glass Usage. Administration of Samara Region investment promotion group. http://www.bisnis.doc.gov/bisnis/country/000727glass_samara.htm
Bled, S. (2001, June 20-22). International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers’ Union. www.icem.org/events/ bled/matdocen.htm
Brodersen, J. & Jacobsen, H. (2003, March 9). European Topic Center on Waste and Material Flows. waste.eionet.eu.int/activities/0000219.html
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http://www.mst.dk/project/NyViden/2000/08030000.htm
The citizens’ committee for green Seoul. Construction of the Sudokwon Landfill. smg.metro.seoul.kr:9000/ waste/part4.html
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Vitrification International Technologies, Inc. (2002, March, 3).Schematic of waste vitrification transformations. www.vitrification.com/ vitrification.htm
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