Evolution of Warfare: Evolution of Warfare Napoleon Major Joel B. Turk MOI


Reading Assignment: Reading Assignment Jones, pp. 330 - 358


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives Comprehend and explain how the stalemate at sea and on land in 1805 dictated a strategy of economic warfare Comprehend and explain how Napoleon’s Russian campaign underscored his weakness as a “grand strategist” Know and list Napoleon’s major contributions to military thought


French Army: French Army Best Artillery in Europe 4 lb regimental gun 8 and 12 lb and 6 inch howitzers for division artillery 12 and 16 lb and 8 inch guns for siege work Increased artillery increased the need for horses and wagons, which increases the length of the columns and the need to protect them Rising cost to standardize arms and equipment


French Revolution: French Revolution 20th of September 1792 changed the course of history Battle of Valmy French against the Prussians France waged wars on all monarchies National convention ruled France and executed Louis XVI on Jan 21, 1793 National convention gave way to the five Directors in 1796 France tried to conduct amphibious assaults against England in 1797 and failed


France versus England: France versus England After a series of failed attempts the Directory assigned Gen Bonapart to command the army designated to invade England


Historical Background: Historical Background First gained renown at age 24 Command of artillery in 1794 siege of Toulon Awarded temporary rank of Brigadier General (from Captain) Oct 1795 - saved government of Directory by using guns against Paris mob (“whiff of grapeshot”) Promoted by Directory - promised command of Army of Italy in 1796 Read incessantly - Guibert, Voltaire, Rousseau, Frederick the Great


Italian Campaign: Italian Campaign Directors feared his ambition - in Mar 1796 given command of Army of Italy 45,000, ill fed, poorly equipped, four dispersed divisions and two smaller detachments British blockaded coast, two smaller allied armies were widely separated beyond hills to north Improved logistical organization and motivated men with promises of booty and glory


Italian Campaign (cont): Italian Campaign (cont) Commenced campaign Burst from position along coast & separated two allied armies fist surrendered, second fell back to Lombardy Remained on strategic defensive Blockaded Austrian force at Mantua, and defeated several Austrian armies approaching Mantua to give relief (used interior lines) After seizing Mantua, moved into Austria quickly bringing them to terms Won 12 victories in 12 months using rapid marches, flexibility in maneuver, & concentration of force


Egyptian Campaign: Egyptian Campaign Couldn’t defeat England at sea Directory agreed to seize Egypt as base for further operations against England’s oriental empire May 1798 - Sailed from Toulon w/35,000 veterans from Italian campaign Captured Malta and arrived @ Alexandria on 1 Jul


During March on Cairo: During March on Cairo Encountered 60,000 Mamelukes (superb cavalry force) in battle of pyramids Napoleon’s efficient volleys of infantry and guns in checkerboard formation prevailed Loaded muskets in inner ranks & passed up to soldiers in front, producing devastating fire


Egyptian Campaign (Cont) : Egyptian Campaign (Cont) Fought in Egypt and Syria another 12 months Realized further glory unlikely without reinforcements from France Had received info that Directory was failing Aug 1799 - relinquished command of Army & returned to France Strategically, Egyptian expedition made no sense Victory of Pyramids offset by Nelson’s victory @ Aboukir Bay Weak French Navy doomed campaign (SLOC)


Ulm and Austerlitz: Ulm and Austerlitz Napoleon turned Eastward Third Coalition (Britain, Austria, Russia) formed against him, but forces still scattered Main axis: Danube Valley running through Austria towards Prussia Napoleon needed to strike first to prevent massing of 140,000 men at Ulm Decided to strike Austrians at Ulm first, then move down Danube to deal with Russians


Ulm - Oct 1805: Ulm - Oct 1805 Grand Army (200,000) secretly marched in 7 columns from Boulogne Cavalry force demonstrated to West while 6 columns swept North and East to get behind Austrians After one futile attempt to break out, Austrians surrendered 30,000 troops One of finest historical examples of turning movement - strategic victory so overwhelming it was never seriously contested in tactical combat


Austerlitz - Dec 1805: Austerlitz - Dec 1805 Napoleon marched down Danube through Viena, Moravia, and Bohemia 90,000 enemy @ Olmutz with secure communications Napoleon (65,000) was overextended Another enemy force of 90,000 was approaching Olmutz Napoleon needed to retreat or win a decisive victory Napoleon’s plan - Lure Russians into attack by showing weak front and apparently exposed flank Allies’ plans - Attack French from flank and front, while holding in position further North


Austerlitz - Dec 1805 (cont): Austerlitz - Dec 1805 (cont) Napoleon’s advantage - forced plan on opponents The battle Dawn 2 Dec, Allied main attack on right flank By 9:00 am, 1/3 of allied army on right flank French center (under Soult) then assaulted, splitting allied front and encircling left French Artillery broke ice on frozen ponds, drowning Russians Bernadotte assaulted through gap caused by Soult Lannes’ Corps drove Allied right until enveloped by Bernadotte By 5:00 pm, Allies lost 27,000, French 8,000, battle over


Austerlitz - Dec 1805 (cont): Austerlitz - Dec 1805 (cont) Napoleon considered Austerlitz his masterpiece Gained complete local superiority @ decisive point Maneuvered to obtain victory Austerlitz ranks with Arbela, Cannae, and Leuthen as tactical masterpieces


Conflict with England: Conflict with England Victories had created many valuable reforms 1/2 million sq mi, 44 million people in kingdom Equality before law Abolition of serfdom Religious toleration Secular education Unified systems of justice Road building


Conflict with England: Conflict with England Problem of Britain remained unsolved War at sea Early 1798 ordered construction of fleet Meantime - strike England’s Eastern trade by seizing Malta Nelson destroyed French fleet in Battle of the Nile Trafalgar, last major battle of Age of Sail, made England totally dominant at sea Having lost fleet - Napoleon attempted economic war Continental system: no trade w/England, prevent her ability to service debt and raise enemies against Napoleon


Weakness in strategy: Weakness in strategy A federated Europe would threaten England’s dominance as sea power England needed Allies on continent, Napoleon couldn’t subjugate entire continent Deprived continent of England’s goods - involved entire continent in war Portugal was main POE for England’s goods - French control in Spain led to revolt


The Spanish Problem: The Spanish Problem 1807 - Napoleon turned attention towards Portugal Britain set example by attacking Portugal and seizing Danish fleet - Portuguese ignored Napoleon’s threats Oct 1807 - Weak Spanish government allowed Napoleon to attack Portugal French captured Lisbon Napoleon had his brother placed on throne in Spain so he could better prevent English goods passing through Spain Revolt ensued in Spain


The Spanish Problem: The Spanish Problem Spanish Guerrillas and English Army allied Spain would have been easily defeated without English support Without Guerrillas, Anglo-Portuguese forces was unable to stand against a concentrated attack from the French 1810 - French troops increased to 370,000 Guerillas successful - about 100 French casualties/day More casualties/equipment loss than defeats in battle Napoleon’s first serious reverse - encouragement for other Europeans, denied him forces for Russian operations. Moral significance to enemies.


Russian Campaign: Russian Campaign Due to setbacks @ Friedland and Eylan, Czar sought alliance with Napoleon Alliance short lived due to Russian desire to trade w/Britain 1812 - Secret agreement between Czar & London Napoleon raised army of 680,000 from all of Europe Size of Army dictated direct approach along greatest avenue of approach Only 200,000 French - depending on support of defeated nations, uneasy allies, conscripts, seething nations 24 June 1812 crossed River Nieman Logistical delays along the way


Russian Campaign: Russian Campaign Numerous logistics setbacks in beginning of campaign Dilemma Couldn’t winter over at Smolensk (unable to provision army & Sweden threatened rear) Retreat before Winter or advance to Moscow Napoleon advanced toward Moscow hoping for decisive victory


Russian Campaign: Russian Campaign Despite some brilliant battles, most were frontal assaults w/no effort to maneuver Napoleon’s personal illness - no vigorous pursuits and on one occasion gave up control of battle Needless cruelty enraged Russians Russian Guerrilla campaign against communications Poor roads/hostile population didn’t support mass/mobility Russian “scorched earth” policy prevented foraging Weakened army fell prey to disease (lost 1/4 combat effectiveness before contact with enemy) Unwilling warriors deserted in droves


Russian Campaign: Russian Campaign Sept 14th - entered Moscow - hollow victory since Russians had burned city & retreated Oct 19th - began retreat, hampered by: Snow & bitter cold Russian Regular/Irregular Forces Ineffective supply system 40,000 vehicles loaded with “loot” vice supplies Breakdown of discipline wasted supplies Weakness - Resupply (poor preparation) & Timing (time of year & still involved in Spain)


Post Russian campaigns: Post Russian campaigns Interior Lines, Strategically good but tactical quality of troops was poor. Few veterans, boy conscripts and untrained national guards French disposition 50,000 in German garrisons 100,000 fighting in Spain 50,000 fighting Austrians in Northeastern Italy 118,000 mustered in France West of the Rhine from Antwerp to Lyon Allied disposition Bernadotte - 60,000 moving through Low Countries Blucher - 75,000 advancing up Moselle Valley into Lorraine Schwarzenberg - 210,000, moving from Switzerland through Belfort Gap Combined objective was Paris


1814 Campaign: 1814 Campaign Crushingly Defeated Brilliant campaign He was ill and his troops were of poor quality Delayed the inevitable in a series of maneuvers and battles which aroused the grudging admiration of his opponents


Waterloo - 18 June 1815: Waterloo - 18 June 1815 Returns from exile on Elba 1 March 1815 Napoleon raises army to battle allies gathering to depose him 1 June poised in Belgium along French border 95,000 Anglo-Dutch under Wellington 124,000 Prussians under Blucher 478,000 joined this force by mid July 16 June - initiates contact w/Prussians @ Ligny Sent Marshal Ney to defeat British Brigade and flank Blucher while Napoleon drove him back British held, preventing flanking maneuver and allowing Prussians to retreat


Waterloo - 18 June 1815: Waterloo - 18 June 1815 17 June - Napoleon unsuccessful in reaching Blucher before he reconstituted forces and headed West to aid Wellington and British forces 18 June - Napoleon attacks Wellington Cavalry attempted breakthrough (failed due to not enough infantry support) Later, infantry attempts breakthrough without artillery support and fails Wellington counterattacked, sending French into panic 21 June 1815 - Napoleon surrenders and exiled to St. Helena, dies on 5 May 1821


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Elements of Napoleonic warfare Unity of Command “1st Necessity in war” Part of his downfall as well “Government must have entire confidence in its general; allow him great latitude, and only provide him with the aim he should attain” Generalship and Soldiership Planning


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Elements of Napoleonic warfare Generalship and Soldiership Essential quality in a General is resolution “All men who value life more than the glory of the nation and the esteem of their comrades should not be members of the French Army” Not only the number of troops, it is their loyalty and good humor Officers should know their men If Courage is the first quality of a soldier, perseverance is the second Best troops: “Those who win battles”


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Elements of Napoleonic warfare Planning Autocrat; empowered him to combine in his own person, the political and strategical conduct of war Entered each campaign with predetermined plan which allowed for variations Enemy’s probable and possible course of action


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Principles of Napoleonic warfare Offensive - invariably seized initiative Maneuver - (strategic and tactical) Napoleon’s hallmark Objective - always main body of army Simplicity - recognized importance of simple plan Unity of Command - essential Economy of force - used small numbers in defense and concentrated combat power at critical point Surprise - greatest moral force (Austerlitz; 1814 campaign)


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Principles of Napoleonic warfare Mass “Distribute your troops in such a way that, whatever the enemy does, you will be able to unite your forces within a few days” “God is on the side of the heavier battalions” Security For army and plans Precautions for all-around defense


Napoleon’s Impact: Napoleon’s Impact Three variations in pattern of strategy “Maneuver in the rear” (flanking attack and envelopment) “The Central Position: (interior lines) Frontal attack - if other two options not possible due to time, terrain, or enemy disposition


Napoleonic Strategy: Napoleonic Strategy Get astride the enemy’s line of communications Superiority of numbers at the crucial point Move rapidly If superior in force, envelop; If inferior, defeat the enemy in detail by use of interior lines Unity of Command Cooperation


Napoleonic Tactics: Napoleonic Tactics Feel out the soft spot with skirmishers Concentrate artillery at that point Pour troops through that point in column Pursue with mobile forces


Napoleon’s Failure: Napoleon’s Failure Inability to make peace with England Armies spread revolutionary zeal Economic problems with protectionist attitude Over-centralization of command Widespread, complex and considerable forces couldn’t be controlled without well-organized general staff Didn’t include staff in planning Stifled subordinates


Lesson Learned: Lesson Learned A once-successful formula must constantly be reevaluated within its societal and technological context, lest with time it be converted into a liability War is both timeless and ever changing. While the basic nature of war is constant, the means and methods we use evolve continuously.” Like war itself, our approach to warfighting must evolve. If we cease to refine, expand and improve our profession, we risk becoming outdated, stagnant and defeated . USMC MCDP 1 “ Warfighting”


Next Session Learning Objectives:: Next Session Learning Objectives: Comprehend Clausewitz’s statement that “war is nothing but a continuation of political intercourse with an admixture of other means” Comprehend and contrast the present day acceptance of Clausewitz’s dicta to those of Jomini’s Know and describe the wide spectrum of the types of war which Clausewitz addressed, (e.g. People’s War) Comprehend the importance assigned by Clausewitz to moral force vice physical force Know and discuss Clausewitz’s impact on current communist military and political thoughts and practices Know and describe Jomini’s contribution to the theory of warfare, especially his “discovery” of the “fundamental principles of War”