fromkin x sociolinguistics

CHAPTER 10PRAGMATICS:LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY(409-460): 

CHAPTER 10 PRAGMATICS: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY (409-460) PowerPoint by Don L. F. Nilsen to accompany An Introduction to Language (8e, 2007) by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman and Nina Hyams

AAVE: 

AAVE During the slave trade, shippers were careful to separate African slaves who spoke the same language as they loaded them onto ships, so that the language they developed was an English based pidgin which became a creole language. Ironically, black wet nurses did much of the raising of aristocratic white babies, so many Black features can be seen also in “white” Southern dialects. African-American Vernacular English (and much of Southern “white” English) has the following features:

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this, that, these, those, them, there /d/ south, mouth /f/ during, more, Paris, star /r-less/ help, will /l-less/ hood, bed, test, wasp (loss of final consonant) (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 423-426)

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thing, ring, sing /ey/ r-less so that such pairs as guard-God, nor-gnaw, sore-saw, poor-Poe fort-fought, and court-caught are not distinguished. police, Detroit (front-shifted stress) nice, boy (simplified vowels) invariable “be” (durative) zero copula (non-durative, compare Spanish “ser” and “estar”) (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 423-426)

BANNED LANGUAGES: 

BANNED LANGUAGES In the United States we have an “English Only” movement. Other languages that have been banned include the following: Cajun English and French were banned in southern Louisiana. American Indian languages have been banned in federal and state schools on reservations. Spanish and Spanglish have been banned in the United States. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 421)

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“Singlish” (a conbination of Singapore and English) has been banned in Singapore. “Franglais” (a combination of French and English) has been banned in France. For example, words like “le parking,” “le weekend,” and “le hotdog” were banned. Patois (local village dialects) have been banned in France. Breton (a Gaelic language) has been banned in France. Sign Language has been banned in many schools for the deaf. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 421-422)

Slide7: 

In Queen Elizabeth’s and King James’ reign of England, Irish, Gaelic and Welch language, dress, music and cultures were banned. Explain why languages are banned, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of banning languages. Explain the importance of Language and Cultural Revivals in Ireland, Quebec (Canada), Ancient Hebrew, Latin, etc. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 423)

CONTEXTUAL TRUTH: 

CONTEXTUAL TRUTH TAUTOLOGY: “Kings are monarchs.” CONTRADICTION: “Kings are female.” EMPIRICALLY TRUE (MAYBE): “Kings are rich.” EMPIRICALLY FALSE (MAYBE): “Kings are poor.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 210-211) In terms of context, explain the following sentences:

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Queens are monarchs. Queens are ugly. Queens are mothers. Kings are mothers. Dogs are four-legged Cats are felines. Cats are stupid. Dogs are carnivores. George Washington is George Washington. George Washington is the first President. George Washington is male. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 210-211)

Slide10: 

Uncles are male. My aunt is a man. Witches are wicked. My brother is a witch. My sister is an only child. The evening star isn’t the evening star. The evening star isn’t Venus. Babies are adults. Babies can lift one ton. Puppies are human. My bachelor friends are all married. My bachelor friends are all lonely. Colorless ideas are green. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 210-211)

DIALECTS: 

DIALECTS A language is a dialect that has an army and a navy. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 409)

DISAMBIGUATION: 

DISAMBIGUATION Explain how context could help to disambiguate the following: He waited by the bank. Is he really that kind? The proprietor of the fish store was the sole owner. The long drill was boring. When he got the clear title to the land, it was a good deed. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 212)

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It takes a good ruler to make a straight line. He saw that gasoline can explode. You should see her shop. Every man loves a woman. Bill wants to marry a Norwegian woman. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 210-211)

GENDERLECTS: 

GENDERLECTS Robin Lakoff’s 1973 research showed that women tend to speak more properly saying things like “Whom do you like?” instead of “Who do you like? because of insecurities caused by sexism in our society. Deborah Tannen said that women tend to “hedge” their speech more often than men with expressions like “I suppose,” “I would imagine,” “This is probably wrong, but….” Her research also showed that women use more tag questions and politeness expressions like “please,” and “thank you.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 430) To what extent are these generalizations still true?

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“One obvious characteristic of female speech is its relatively higher pitch, caused by shorter vocal tracts.” “Nevertheless, studies have shown that the difference in pitch between male and female voices is generally greater than could be accounted for by physiology alone.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 431) What is happening here?

HYPERCORRECTIONS: 

HYPERCORRECTIONS between you and I…. Won’t he let you and I swim? often (pronouncing the t) (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 417, 420)

NAMES: PROVIDE AN APPROPRIATE CONTEXT : 

NAMES: PROVIDE AN APPROPRIATE CONTEXT Mustard’s Last Stand Aunt Chilada’s Lion on the Beach Pizza Paul and Mary Franks for the Memories (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 215)

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Weiner Take All Dressed to Grill Deli Beloved Gone with the Wings Aunt Chovy’s Pizza Polly Esther’s Thai Me Up Café Romancing the Cone Frank ‘N Stein’s (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 215)

NEWSPAPER HEADLINES(OUT OF CONTEXT): 

NEWSPAPER HEADLINES (OUT OF CONTEXT) POLICE BEGIN CAMPAIGN TO RUN DOWN JAYWALKERS DRUNK GETS NINE MONTHS IN VIOLIN CASE FARMER BILL DIES IN HOUSE STUD TIRES OUT (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 212)

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SQUAD HELPS DOG BITE VICTIM LACK OF BRAINS HINDERS RESEARCH MINERS REFUSE TO WORK AFTER DEATH EYE DROPS OFF SHELF JUVENILE COURT TO TRY SHOOTING DEFENDANT QUEEN MARY HAVING BOTTOM SCRAPED (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 212)

Slide21: 

OBSCENITIES The name Voldemort is taboo and is not to be uttered by anyone at Hogwarts Academy. The words corset, shirt, leg, and woman used to be taboo words in English. In Shaw’s Pygmalion, Professor Higgins asked, “Are you walking across the Park, Miss Doolittle?” and Eliza Doolittle responded, “Walk! Not bloody likely. I am going in a taxi.” This use of bloody startled London when the play was first produced in 1910. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 443)

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Sometimes a swearword is needed to provide a bit of edginess. Consider Act II, Scene I of Macbeth if it were “cleaned up”: Hear it not, Duncan; for it is a knell That summons thee to heaven, or to heck. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 443)

FOUR-LETTER WORDS: 

FOUR-LETTER WORDS English has many Anglo-Saxon or four letter words; however for each of these it is possible to find a Latinate paraphrase that is more polite. Think without speaking of the four-letter words associated with each of the following:

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Defecate Eliminate Expectorate Feces Fornicate Intercourse Mammary gland Penis Vagina (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 244)

PIDGINS AND CREOLES: 

PIDGINS AND CREOLES Pidgins and creoles tend to be quite metaphorical and poetic. Here are some examples: Fella belong Mrs. Queen = Prince Philip, Husband of Queen Elizabeth II muckamuck = to eat, drink, or pucker the mouth him brother belong me = friend lamp belong Jesus = sun gubmint catchum-fella = policeman grass belong face = whiskers him belly allatime burn = thirsty man him cow pig have kittens = Has the Master’s sow given birth to a litter yet? (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 434-436)

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A second generation pidgin is called a creole. Creole languages are learned from birth as native languages. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 436) J. L. Dillard specializes in the study of pidgins and creoles. He says that they are associated with shipping lanes, and result from the interaction of people coming together who speak different languages from each other.

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Di fos tok fo di gud nuus for Jesus Christ God yi Pikin. = The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. Di vos fo som man di krai fo bush: “Fix di ples weh Papa God di go, mek ye rud tret.” = The voice of one crying in the wilderness, “Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 455)

Slide28: 

Haitian Creole is a creole based on French. Jamaican Creole is a creole based on English. Gullah is an English-based creole spoken by descendants of African slaves off the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina. Louisiana Creole is spoken in Louisiana. Tok Pisin as a Melanesian Pidgin English spoken in Papua, New Guinea. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 437)

PRECONDITIONS FOR SPEECH ACTS: 

PRECONDITIONS FOR SPEECH ACTS Explain how linguistic and social context help in understanding the following sentences: You make a better door than a window. It’s getting late. The restaurants are open until midnight. If you’d diet, this wouldn’t hurt so badly. I thought I saw a fan in the closet. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 218)

Slide30: 

Mr. Smith dresses neatly, is well-groomed, and is always on time to class. Most of the food is gone. John or Mary made a mistake. Did you make a doctor’s appointment? Do you have the play tickets? Does your grandmother have a live-in boyfriend? How did you like the string quartet? What are Boston’s chances of winning the World Series? (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 218)

Slide31: 

Do you own a cat? LAURA: Did you mow the grass and wash the car like I told you to? JACK: I mowed the grass. LAURA: Do you want dessert? JACK: Is the Pope Catholic? When did you stop paying alimony to your ex-wife? (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 219)

PYGMALION & MY FAIR LADY: 

PYGMALION & MY FAIR LADY George Bernard Shaw wrote Pygmalion. When Alan Jaye Lerner and Frederick Lowe adapted the novel into a musical named My Fair Lady they retained much of Shaw’s original language. Here are some lyrics from the musical. Explain what they tell us about social dialects: “Wouldn’t it be loverly?” “Just you wait, Enery Iggins / Just you wait.” “Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / Why can’t the English teach their children how to speak?” “In Hartford, Hereford, and Hampshire / hurricanes hardly ever happen. “The rain in Spain stays mainly on the plain.” (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 410)

SECRET LANGUAGES: 

SECRET LANGUAGES Verlan (L’envers) Elvish Signifying in Slave Language Cockney Rhyming Slang Pig Latin Brazilian i-insertion Bengali Reversed Syllables (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 451)

SLANG, JARGON AND ARGOT: 

SLANG, JARGON AND ARGOT Slang, Jargon and Argot are all gate-keeping languages used as much to identify members of a particular group as to communicate. Slang is age related—mainly high school and college students. Jargon is profession related—every profession has its own jargon. Argot is underworld related—it’s designed to communicate to the group and not to the authorities. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 439-442)

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Carl Sandburg said, “Slang is language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands—and goes to work.” SLANG EXAMPLES: spaced out, right on, to barf, to dis someone, rave (wild party), ecstasy (drug), crib (home), posse (friends) JARGON EXAMPLES: phoneme, morpheme, case, lexicon, phrase structure rule ARGOT EXAMPLES: “He was hoopty around dimday when some mud duck with a tray-eight tried to take him out of the box.” TRANSLATION: “He was in his car about dusk when a woman armed with a .38 caliber gun tried to kill him.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 439-441)

ENGLISH VS. SPANISHSYNTACTIC DIFFERENCES: 

ENGLISH VS. SPANISH SYNTACTIC DIFFERENCES English adjectives come before nouns; Spanish adjectives come after nouns. Spanish has “pro-drop” which means that a subject pronoun can be dropped; English does not. Spanish has double negatives (“No tiene nada”); English does not. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 427-430)

SPANGLISH: 

SPANGLISH bacuncliner: vacuum cleaner biper: beeper or pager boyla: boiler chileando: chilling out choping: shopping fafu: fast food (Alvarez 487)

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jangear: hanging out joldoperos: muggers, holdup artists liqueo: to leak maicrogüey: microwave oven pulover: T-shirt roofo: roof sangüiche: sandwich tensén: ten-cent store like K-Mart or Woolworths (Alvarez 487)

WEBSTER’S THIRD NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY: 

WEBSTER’S THIRD NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY This dictionary, published in 1961, was the first major dictionary that obliterated the “older distinction between standard, substandard, colloquial, vulgar, and slang.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 418) Is this a good thing or a bad thing? Explain.

BRITISH-AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION DIFFERENCES: 

BRITISH-AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION DIFFERENCES calf, bath, pass, aunt learn, fork, core, brother carry, very either, neither, potato, tomato clerk, schedule captain, bottle (glottals [in Cockney]) (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 454)

BRITISH-AMERICANSTRESS DIFFERENCES: 

BRITISH-AMERICAN STRESS DIFFERENCES aluminum applicable cigarette dictionary formidable kilometer laboratory necessary missionary secretary stationery territory (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 413)

SOUTHERN PHONOLOGY: 

SOUTHERN PHONOLOGY Mrs. [mIz] hog (frog, dog, Deputy Dog) south => souf during => doin’, and going => gon help => hep (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 423)

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test => tes ring => rang, boy => boah, car => cah POlice nasal twang (Texas and Oklahoma) southern drawl (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 423)

GRAMMAR DIFFERENCES: 

GRAMMAR DIFFERENCES Double Modals: might could Negative Modals: hadn’t ought Strange Past Participles: larnt Strange Possessive Pronouns: yourn, hisn, hern, ourn, theirn Strange Prepositions: a quarter before eight Strange Conjunctions: unless => without, lessen, thouten Strange Adverbs: anywheres, nowheres (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 416-417)

VOCABULARY DIFFERENCES : 

VOCABULARY DIFFERENCES What do you fry your eggs in? creeper, fryer, frying pan, fry pan, skillet, or spider What do you call a soft drink? pop, soda, soda pop, or tonic? What do you call a long sandwich containing salami etc.? hero, submarine, hoagy, grinder or poorboy (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 414)

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What do you drink water out of? drinking fountain, cooler, bubbler or geyser How do you get something from one place to another? take, carry, or tote What do you carry things in? a bag, a sack, or a poke How do you speculate? reckon, guess, figgure, figger, suspect, imagine (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 414)

BRITISH-AMERICAN VOCABULARY DIFFERENCES: 

BRITISH-AMERICAN VOCABULARY DIFFERENCES bird, bobby, bonnet, boot, braces, clothes peg, first floor, flat, lift, lorry, nickers, peruque, petrol, pram, pub, public school, queue, spanner, tele, torch, trousers, tube, westcoat girl, cop, hood (of a car), trunk (of a car), suspenders, clothes pin, second floor, apartment, elevator, truck, underwear, wig, gasoline, baby buggy, bar, private school, line, monkey wrench, television, flashlight, pants, subway, vest (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 414, 456)

COCKNEY RHYMING SLANG: 

COCKNEY RHYMING SLANG apples and pears (stairs) Aristotle (bottle) pig’s ear (beer) Mother Hubbard (cupboard) plates and dishes (Mrs.) (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 451)

ETHNIC HUMORTO INVESTIGATE STEREOTYPES: 

ETHNIC HUMOR TO INVESTIGATE STEREOTYPES

AFRICAN-AMERICAN ETHNICITY: 

AFRICAN-AMERICAN ETHNICITY Dick Gregory said that America is the only country in the world where a man can grow up in a ghetto, go to really bad schools, be forced to ride in the back of the bus, and then get paid $5,000 a week to tell people about it. (Nilsen & Nilsen 16)

CHINESE ETHNICITY: 

CHINESE ETHNICITY Chinese writer Frank Chin has criticized Maxine Hong Kingston for Woman Warrior, Amy Tan for The Joy Luck Club, and David Henry Hwang for his plays F.O.B., and M. Butterfly. He accuses these writers of “boldly faking” Chinese fairy tales and childhood literature. (Nilsen & Nilsen 117)

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Kingston responded, “Sociologists have criticized me for not knowing myths and for distorting them.” She says that in China, pirates illegally translate her books for publication in Taiwan and China. She continues that these pirates “correct” her myths, and revise them to make them conform to traditional Chinese versions. Kingston says, “They don’t understand that myths have to change, be useful or be forgotten.” “Like the people who carry them across oceans, the myths become American.” (Nilsen & Nilsen 117)

HISPANIC ETHNICITYfrom Laurence Peter and Bill Dana’s The Laughter Prescription: 

HISPANIC ETHNICITY from Laurence Peter and Bill Dana’s The Laughter Prescription “There was un ratoncito, a little mouse, and he was hiding in his hole in the living room. He was very frustrated, because he knew where there was some queso, some cheese. But, he heard the ‘miao’ of el gato, the cat.” (Nilsen & Nilsen 146)

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This was no ratoncito estupido, because he knew that gatos eat ratoncitos. So he waited until he heard “Woof, woof,” and he knew it was el perro, the dog. He knew that perros scare away los gatos, and also that perros don’t eat ratoncitos. So he walked out and saw, no perro, pero el gato! And el gato gulped him up and said: “iQue bueno ser bilingue!” (Nilsen & Nilsen 146)

INDIAN ETHNICITY: 

INDIAN ETHNICITY In her I Tell You Now, Paula Gunn Allen talked about what she called, “an odd brand of English…a punning, cunning language that is mostly local, mostly half-breed spoken by the people around me, filled with elegance and vulgarity side by side, small jokes that are language jokes and family jokes and area jokes” (Nilsen and Nilsen 27).

IRISH ETHNICITY: 

IRISH ETHNICITY “Since Irish humor developed out of the oral tradition (the telling of jokes and stories in Irish pubs), it is very epiphenal in nature.” “Like Jewish humor, Irish humor developed out of pain and tragedy that resulted in a diaspora.” (Nilsen Humor in Irish Literature xv)

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“Irish humor, like Jewish humor, contains much wordplay, and like Jewish humor, much of Irish wordplay is bilingual and/or bicultural, relating to both the Gaelic/Celtic and to the English language and culture.” Many Irish, like many Jews, “are trying to reestablish their roots, and it is the humor in Irish written and oral literature that is helping them to do so.” (Nilsen Humor in Irish Literature xv)

ITALIAN ETHNICITY: 

ITALIAN ETHNICITY In the late 1970s, comedian Don Novello spoke with an Italian accent and dressed in clerical garb when doing comedy skits about Father Guido Sarducci. He was a hit on Saturday Night Live and on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, but when he went to the Vatican to pose for publicity photos he was arrested for impersonating a priest. (Nilsen & Nilsen 115)

JEWISH ETHNICITY: 

JEWISH ETHNICITY One member of the Knesset suggests that Israel go to war against the United States. Other members say, “What?” “Such a war wouldn’t last 10 minutes.” “I know. I know. But then we would be a conquered country and the Americans would send us aid. They would build roads and hospitals and send food and agricultural experts.” “But,” said another member of the Knesset, “What if we win?” (Nilsen & Nilsen 173)

LIGHTBULB JOKESTO INVESTIGATE ETHNICITY: 

LIGHTBULB JOKES TO INVESTIGATE ETHNICITY How many New Yorkers? Three: One to do it and two to criticize. How many grad students? Three: Two plus a professor to take the credit How many Jewish mothers? None: I’ll just sit in the dark. (Nilsen & Nilsen 176)

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How many Los Angeles Police? Six: one to do it and five to smash the old bulb to smithereens. How many Dolly clones? As many as you’d like. As many as you’d like. As many as you’d like. (Nilsen & Nilsen 176)

!RUSSIAN ETHNICITY: 

!RUSSIAN ETHNICITY Russian immigrant Yakov Smirnoff entertained Americans through the cold war and beyond with such jokes as, “I have a Russian Express Card. It says, `Don’t Leave Home!’” and “One of the biggest differences between America and Russia is that in America you can always find a party, but in Russia, the party always finds you.” (Nilsen & Nilsen 115)

!!SCANDINAVIAN ETHNICITY: 

!!SCANDINAVIAN ETHNICITY Garrison Keillor exploits Scandinavian stereotypes in his “Lake Wobegon.” “Swedish flu is the usual flu with chills, fever, diarrhea, vomiting, achiness, but it’s accompanied by an overpowering urge to put things in order.” (Nilsen & Nilsen 116)

!!!SOUTHERN ETHNICITY: 

!!!SOUTHERN ETHNICITY “A radio comedian once remarked that ‘the Mason-Dixon line is the dividing line between you-all and youse-guys.” (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 412)

Slide65: 

References # 1: Alvarez, Lizette Alvarez. “It’s the Talk of Nueva York: The Hybrid called Spanglish” (Clark, 483-488). Apte, Mahadev L. Humor and Laughter: An Anthropological Approach. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985. Boskin, Joseph. Rebellious Laughter: People’s Humor in American Culture. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press,1997. Brown, Penelope, and Stephen C. Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa. Language: Readings in Language and Culture, 6th Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Davies, Christie. Jokes and Their Relation to Society. New York, NY: Mouton, 1998.

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References # 2: Dundes, Alan. Cracking Jokes: Studies of Sick Humor Cycles and Stereotypes. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1987. Dundes, Alan, and Carl R. Pagter. Never Try to Teach a Pig to Sing: Still More Urban Folklore from the Paperwork Empire. Detroit, MI: Wayne State Univ Press, 1996. Dundes, Alan, and Carl R. Pagter. Sometimes the Dragon Wins: Yet More Urban Folklore from the Paperwork Empire. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ Press, 1996. Dundes, Alan, and Carl R. Pagter. When You’re Up to Your Ass in Alligators…: More Urban Folklore from the Paperwork Empire. Detroit, MI: Wayne State Univ Press, 1987. Dundes, Alan, and Carl R. Pagter. Work Hard and You Shall be Rewarded: Urban Folklore from the Paperwork Empire. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ Press, 1975.

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References # 3: Eckert, Penelope. Constructing Meaning in Sociolinguistic Variation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Associatin in New Orleans, 2002. Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. “Pragmatics: Language in Society.” An Introduction to Language, 8th Edition. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, 409-460. Goffman, Erving. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Bahavior. Garolen City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1967. Labov, William. Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1966. Nilsen, Alleen Pace, and Don L. F. Nilsen. Encyclopedia of 20th Century American Humor. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000. Nilsen, Don L. F. Humor in Irish Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996. Shuy, Roger. “Dialects: How They Differ” (Clark, 292-312)