smt exam2

4.- Faith in Numbers: 

4.- Faith in Numbers Telecommunication has enabled the modern nation to organize itself better. Argument substituted conflict. Last empire to fall: Roman (destroyed by its own taxation system). Its pieces somehow held together by a communication network. Eight century: the church ran the mail. They were granted exception of taxes and other privileges. The Church also preserved gearing technology used in mills.

Mills: 

Mills Waterwheel is the power source for the mill. Earliest of a gearing system by Roman Vitruvius (14 B.C) Two basic types of mills: 1.- Overshot wheel powered by water falling on the wheel and 2.- Undershot wheel with current moving against the paddles at the bottom of the wheel. Mills multiple uses: grain, beer making, ore-crushing, textile industry, etc. (from the fifth century).

Church: 

Church St. Benedict (480-543 A.D.): pray, study, and work. Benedictines’ rule: to work is to pray. By the eleventh century they had grown decadent. Robert Molesme (1098) created Cistercians. They made marginal land productive (discipline: 4 hrs praying, 4 hrs reading,and 6 hrs manual labor) By the 1300s they had mills for: treating ore, corn mills, oil mills, wine presses, etc. A very successful operation! The Cistercians were famous for their wool.

Fairs, Commenda and Credit: 

Fairs, Commenda and Credit The crossing-points of trade routes became markets (1114) where there were market fairs. Italians invented the Commenda, a piece of paper that made international trade possible (3/4 for investors, ¼ for the traveling merchants). Merchants were free to do whatever they wanted with the goods. During the 13th and 14th centuries, money and water power combined to improve the economy. Around this time, cash was left behind to be replaced by letters of credit, as investors became more confident on the economy.

Paper: 

Paper In late 1300s the bubonic plague (lumps or buboes in armpits) halved the population of Europe, By 1402 Millions had died. Plague’s cycle: Infected rat (pasterulla pestis bacteria) -> fleas -> fleas bite other rats and humans. Survivors benefited economically. By the end of the 14th century, paper-making was a growing industry (from discarded linen). Paper-making techniques came from the Arabs (~750 A.D.). First paper mill in Italy in 1280. Rotten Linen rags pounded by hammers -> pulp -> pulp drained -> pressed dried.

Printing: 

Printing In 1300 paper was cheap but since the plague killed many literate people, their services were expensive for copying. Need for automated printing. Chinese and Koreans had already attempted it. German Gutenberg invented automated printing (see page 103). The earliest use of this technology: the book of Psalms in 1457. Lots of classic books started to be printed.

Binary Code: 

Binary Code The craze for automata spread to industry and music. Automatic music was translated into a pattern to which pegs were inserted into the side of cylinder (see page 108) The automated loom included a sheet of paper with holes. When the paper was pressed against rods, information was transmitted on what moved and what didn’t (Bouchon’s system pg 110) Binary code had been created!

5.- The Wheel of Fortune: 

5.- The Wheel of Fortune Binary numbers (readings pg 100-101). A system based on 1 and 0. Each place corresponds to a power of 2. Convert 10110101 to decimal. 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 Add the numbers with ones 128+32+16+4+1 = 181 Convert 156 to binary 156-128=28 put a one under 128; 28-16=12 put a one under 16; 12-8=4 put a one under 8; 4-4=0 put a one under 4: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

The computer: 

The computer Uses binary code to do all its calculations. The predictive capacity the computer has and will continue to have the most profound effects on the modern world. The computer can be used to solve problems whose calculation would take a human longer than a life-time. Digital computers (starting 1960-1970): Central Processing Unit (CPU), short term memory-> Random Access Memory (RAM); long term memory (Hard Drive); input and output devices, I/O (Keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, etc.)

Way before the computer: Clocks: 

Way before the computer: Clocks There was an increased need to tell time. Example: to follow a routine -> monks. Types of clocks: Water powered clocks (pg 129), clockworks, pendulum clocks (Huygens made the first pendulum timekeeper), etc. Clocks composed of intricate moving parts powered by an unwinding spring. Spring-driven clocks became important. By the middle of the sixteenth century it had become a watch. Modern clocks are based on natural crystal oscillations of quartz. Good time telling important in navigation.

Astrolabes and Telescopes: 

Astrolabes and Telescopes Different instruments have been used for navigation. One of them the Astrolabe (ninth century: Arabs). Astrolabe: Replica of the stars in the Sky, which could be moved to show where the stars would be at any time in the year. Another important instrument the Telescope. An arrangement of glasses or mirrors or both that gathers visible light, permitting direct observation of distant objects. Galileo saw Jupiter’s moons in 1609. Telescope and clock are used together to determine the position of a ship (readings pg 59-60)

Also: 

Also The lathe had been in use since ancient times. However it was during the eighteen century when it was perfected and used more widely.

6.- Fuel to the flame: 

6.- Fuel to the flame Sources of fuel and its use Heating: Little ice age (13th century) triggered changes in living patterns of European community. Up to this point central fire & hole in the roof. Simple Chimney -> underfloor heating out through chimney -> strengthen chimney supporting more than one room. Architectural changes: fireplace’s hood prevented sparks from reaching the ceiling -> lower ceilings. Social changes: heated rooms introduced the concept of privacy -> romance. Refined life styles.

Glass Production: 

Glass Production What is glass? Not a crystalline solid, not a liquid. It is a “frozen” liquid. Glass industry before the 16th century. By 1580 glass production increased. Efficient furnaces and lots of wood. Two main types of glass: broad glass (for larger frames, poured in cylinder and rolled open); crown glass (smaller pieces, used blowpipe) Consequence: wood depletion in England during 16th century. Response: Coal furnaces. 1611 Edward Zouch.

Furnaces, metals, and alloys.: 

Furnaces, metals, and alloys. Another use of the furnaces was in the production of metal alloys. Bronze was considered a better material than iron by the English. Bronze: alloy of copper and tin. Another important alloy used in manufacturing wool (metal combs) was brass. Brass: alloy of copper and zinc. Periodic table of the elements.

Steam Engine and the industrial revolution: 

Steam Engine and the industrial revolution The elements of the steam engine were known to the Greeks. Ctsesibius (100 B.C.). Later need: Drain the mines. Response: Miner’s friend (pg 171). Steam forced down to water level, condensed, created a vacuum, sucked water. Structure couldn’t stand the heat. Newcomen (~1703) separated the boiler to generate the steam. The main cylinder hot and cold. James Watt (1769) invented the steam engine, which drove the industrial revolution. He designed a separate condensing unit so that the main cylinder could stay hot, keeping the steam from condensing to early. Readings page 31 “Harnessing Steam” first 4 paragraphs

Internal combustion engine: 

Internal combustion engine After inventing soda water (1762) Priestley triggered studies on “unwanted” gases. Volta’s eudiometric pistol: spark with methane gas -> explosion. Used to fight malaria (bad air) until they figured out the illness wasn’t caused by bad air. In 1859 petroleum replaced whale’s oil in lighting. Initially no use for lighter “gasoline” components of this petroleum. Nikolaus Otto in 1876 designed the precursor of modern internal combustion engine. Based on pistons moving up and down as a result of a gasoline/air mixture ignited by a spark.