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Epidemiology of Emerging Infectious Diseases: An Examination of Global Threats From a Public Health Education Perspective: 

Epidemiology of Emerging Infectious Diseases: An Examination of Global Threats From a Public Health Education Perspective Dr. B. McKinley Thomas Assistant Professor of Education Department of Kinesiology and Health Science Augusta State University Email: bthomas@aug.edu

About the Author: 

About the Author Dr. B. McKinley Thomas is a public health educator in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Science at Augusta State University, Georgia, USA. He graduated with a Doctorate of Education in 1995 from the University of Tennessee. Post doctorate work was completed with the University of South Carolina, School of Public Health, Eastern Carolina HIV Prevention Collaboration. The authors research interest include HIV/AIDS, trend analysis of mortality / morbidity data, and the global impact of suicide among elderly females.

Performance Tasks: 

Performance Tasks define emerging infectious diseases. list infectious agents that pose a major threat to public health. discuss the etiology of emerging infectious diseases. acknowledge CDC’s response to emerging infectious diseases. generate ideas regarding future trends and issues. locate internet resources in the area of infectious disease control.

Public Health Issues / Concerns: 

Public Health Issues / Concerns International relations Political collaboration Nuclearization Food shortages Equity Life expectancy Data Validity Violence Reproduction and birth control Chronic diseases Warfare Mortality / Morbidity Injury

Infectious Disease: 

Infectious Disease 1900 - Leading Causes of Death Tuberculosis Pneumonia and Influenza Heart Disease Diarrhea / Enteritis Cerebrovascular Disease Nephritis / Nephrosis Unintended Injury Cancer Diphtheria Typhoid Fever 1992 - Leading Causes of Death Heart Disease Cancer Cerebrovascular Disease COPD Unintended Injury Pneumonia / Influenza Diabetes Mellitus HIV/AIDS Suicide Homicide / Legal Intervention

Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) Defined: 

Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) Defined Defined to include diseases with rates of incidence that have increased within the last two years or those with the potential of increasing in the future Institute of Medicine, 1992

Pathogenic Microbes Identified as Threats to Humans Since 1973: 

Pathogenic Microbes Identified as Threats to Humans Since 1973 1973 - Rotavirus 1977 - Ebola virus 1977 - Legionella pneumophila 1980 - HTLV 1 1981 -Toxin-producing Staphylococcus aureus 1982 - Escherichia coli O157:H7 1982 - Borrelia burgdorferi 1983 - HIV 1983 - Helicobacter pylori 1989 - Hepatitis C 1992 - Vibrio cholerae O139 1993 - Hantavirus 1994 - Cryptosporidium 1996 - nvCJD 1997 - HVN1 CIA, 2000

Examples of Problem Scope: 

Examples of Problem Scope 1981 The emergence of HIV/AIDS 1994 More than 200,000 cases of Dengue reported in Latin America and a 140% increase (over 1990) of diphtheria in the same region. 1995 Reports a four-fold increase in cholera levels over 1990 estimates. Estimated, 25% of all U.S. Doctor visits each year due to complications associated with infectious diseases.

Cholera: 

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Sub-Saharan Africa affected Democratic Republic of Congo Uganda Rwanda Burundi Tanzania Kenya Sierra Leone Cameroon Over a 3 month period in 1997 outbreaks in Kenya & Tanzania, over 400 killed Cases reported in 2000 Federated States of Micronesia 954 cases / 9 deaths Somalia 2,232 cases / 230 deaths Madagascar 15,173 cases / 860 deaths

Dengue: 

Dengue Most important mosquito-borne disease, worldwide Aedes aegypti Affected regions Indian Subcontinent Southeast Asia Southern China Central and South America Caribbean Mexico Africa Symptoms similar to those of influenza

Diarrheal Diseases: 

Diarrheal Diseases Organisms most frequently associated with diarrhea in young children / estimated percentage of cases seen at health centers in the developing countries Rotavirus - 15-25% Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli - 10-20% Shigella - 5-15% Salmonella (non-typhoid) - 1-5% Campylobacter jejuni - 10-15% Cryptosporidium - 5-15% (PAHO, 2000) Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) is one way of combating diseases within this classification

Diphtheria: 

Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae Good example of how political issues can influence the reemergence of a disease [See following graph] Very contagious and potentially life-threatening Large epidemics in the Soviet Republics, Algeria, China, and Ecuador.

Slide13: 

Source: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. (1996). August 16, 1996 / 45(32);693-697

Escherichia coli O157:H7: 

Escherichia coli O157:H7 Food-borne First recognized as a cause of illness in 1982 during an outbreak of severe bloody diarrhea Annually 73,000 cases 61 deaths Primarily transmitted via ingestion of meat that has not been properly cooked Person-to-person, contaminated drinking water, consumption of contaminated plant products (CDC, 20006)

Ebola: 

Ebola Filovirus Fifteen global outbreaks since 1967 Breman, van der Groen, Peters, & Haymann (1997) Major human outbreaks Sub-Saharan Africa Kikwit Zaire Sudan Gabon

Ebola Virus and the Global Community: 

Ebola Virus and the Global Community Source: Benini, A. A, & Bradford, 2000

Hantavirus: 

Hantavirus Also known as... Sin Nombre virus (responsible for most hantaviral infections in the U.S.) Wells, et al, (1997) Convict Creek virus Muerto Canyon virus First recognized in 1993 Four corners region of the U.S. Has been identified in the U.S. from CA to FL Mortality rate, 50% Associated disease Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS)

Helicobacter pylori: 

Helicobacter pylori Bacterium Believed to be the etiologic agent in 90% of duodenal ulcers 80% of gastric ulcers Discovered as culprit in 1982 Large portion of world population infected Related chronic disease Gastric cancer

Listeriosis: 

Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes Common among individuals who work with animals Causes spontaneous abortion and stillbirth in domestic animals Primarily affects Pregnant women Newborns Elderly Immuno compromised adults (Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors, 2000)

Malaria: 

Malaria Due to Plasmodium parasite transmitted by the  Anopheles mosquito 300 million infected each year Regions Asia Africa South / Central Americas >1 million deaths annually Mostly infants and children (National Institutes of Health, 2000)

Tuberculosis: 

Tuberculosis Chronic bacterial infection Principal infectious cause of death worldwide Three million deaths annually One-third of world population infected with M. Tuberculosis (OSHA, 2000) Outbreak locations Jails / prisons Hospitals Nursing homes Homeless shelters

Tuberculosis: 

Tuberculosis Estimated 15 million Americans with latent infections Minorities affected disproportionately [as is the case with many other infectious diseases] 54% active M. Tuberculosis cases (1995) reported among African American and Hispanic populations An additional 17.5% among Asians In some U.S. sectors, morbidity rates surpass those of poorest countries

Cases of M. Tuberculosis by Year of Diagnosis, 1953-1999: 

Cases of M. Tuberculosis by Year of Diagnosis, 1953-1999 Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 20001

West Nile Encephalitis: 

West Nile Encephalitis Mosquito-borne infection Outbreaks evident in Egypt, Asia, Israel, South Africa, parts of Europe and Australia No recorded cases in the U.S. prior to 1999 Culex pipiens mosquito (the common house mosquito) associated with West Nile virus Transmission: Bird ---> mosquito ---> human American crows most commonly infected, yet confirmed in other species (State of New York, Department of Health, 2000) May also infect other mammals such as horses 62 cases 7 deaths

Institute of Medicine: 

Institute of Medicine Demographic shifts Advances in technology / industry Economic development and change in land use patterns Travel / commerce Microbial adaptation / change Breakdown of the public health infrastructure

Drug Resistance: 

Drug Resistance Drug Resistance Gonorrhea, malaria, childhood ear infections Resistance is a factor in most nosocomial infections More effective medications are needed In some U.S. clinics, 30% of cases of gonorrhea resistant to penicillin or tetracycline or both MDR-TB Inappropriate use of antibiotics is a salient factor in drug resistance

Infectious Diseases and Chronic Diseases: 

Infectious Diseases and Chronic Diseases Emerging evidence that a substantial proportion of human cancers are caused by infectious diseases (~15%) (Valerie Beal, Speaker, 2nd International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases) 1911 - Rous Sarcoma 1932 - Shope Skin Tumor 1960 - Feline Leukemia 1978 - HPV, Skin Cancer 1981 - HBV, Liver Cancer 1981 - EBV, non Hodgkin's Lymphoma 1983 - HPV, Cervical Cancer

CDC’s Response to EIDs: 

CDC’s Response to EIDs Goal I: Surveillance and Response Goal II: Applied Research Goal III: Infrastructure and Training Goal IV: Prevention and Control

Suggestions for Enhanced Public Health: 

Suggestions for Enhanced Public Health Public health education Continued collaborative efforts on the part of the international community Government funding for biomedical and educational efforts Recognition of infectious diseases that pose the greatest risk to public health As usual, more research is needed...

Conclusions: 

Conclusions Emerging infectious diseases are omnipotent and will continue to command attention. EID’s are most deleterious in 1) developing nations and 2) among children, the elderly, females, and those with weakened immune systems EID’s are controllable! It is the responsibility of the global community to continue to develop / refine public health infrastructures to deal with burgeoning crises. Initiatives must be developed in order to overcome social, religions, and regional barriers to prevention and control.

Useful Documents on the World Wide Web: 

Useful Documents on the World Wide Web Emerging Infectious Diseases http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/index.htm HIV/AIDS Education / Prevention Slide Set http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/graphics.htm Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) http://www2.cdc.gov/mmwr/ Preventing Emerging Infectious Diseases: A Strategy for the 21st Century http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/emergplan/plan98.pdf

Useful Sites on the World Wide Web: 

Useful Sites on the World Wide Web Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics http://www.healthsci.tufts.edu/apua/apua.html Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov International Trachoma Institute http://www.trachoma.org/ ProMed Email http://www.promed.org/ World Health Organization http://www.who.ch