Ancient America :Ancient America An Introduction


Why Start Here? :Why Start Here? Until the 1960s historians had a narrow view of American history. We must understand the complex interactions of Native Americans, Africans, and Europeans. These interactions created new identities.


Issues Affecting Studies of Ancient Americans :Issues Affecting Studies of Ancient Americans Prehistory: before writing was invented. Study of artifacts: anything shaped by humans. Archeologists: analyze artifacts. Anthropologists: use artifacts and bone fragments to study physical characteristics and the ways people organized societies. Native American history is complex & dynamic.


Oral Tradition :Oral Tradition Native Americans reject the history as presented by archeologists and anthropologists. Native American history began before the arrival of humans. Oral tradition lays foundation for understanding the views of individual tribes and their relationship with the environment.


Migration :Migration North and South America last to be occupied. Colder climate led to formation of Beringia. First Americans crossed Beringia about 15,000 years ago from Siberia. (Skeletal and genetic analysis) Lived in small bands (15-50 individuals) and hunted large mammals. No permanent villages and few possessions.


Paleo-Indians :Paleo-Indians Sites were temporary encampments. Abundant food supply led to swelling of populations. Bands subdivided until sites eventually located in South America. (9,000 years ago) Over-hunting and climate change led to extinction of largest mammals.


Archaic-Indians :Archaic-Indians Archaic-Indians exploited a broader array of food sources. Learned to harvest shellfish, fish, birds, nuts, seeds, and berries. Hunted more elusive mammals such as deer, antelope, elk, and caribou. Lived in more defined territories near rivers & lakes or sea coasts. Population growth ensued.


Archaic-Indians :Archaic-Indians Modified environment by setting annual forest fires and by weeding out inedible plants. Men: hunted and fished. Women: gathered and prepared wild plants. Women gained status because work was critical. Indians adapted to local environments and created distinct cultures. Trade networks existed, but no market economies. (No imperialism either)


Horticulture :Horticulture Horticulture Cultivating fruits, vegetables, or plants. Indians of central Mexico pioneered cultivation of maize, squashes, and beans. Relied less on hunting, fishing, and gathering. Pros: larger and more permanent villages. Cons: vulnerable to economic/social catastrophe and less healthy diet.


Horticulture :Horticulture Horticulture never spread universally. Environment played a big part in its adoption. If growing season short, if area lacked water, or if area abounded with fish and game, horticulture wasn’t adopted. Thus the majority of Indians continued to live in small, dispersed, & mobile groups.


Hohokam and Anasazi :Hohokam and Anasazi Hohokam and Anasazi did not build empires. Politically independent villages. Both cultures built stone & adobe houses. Performed public rituals to maintain harmony with nature. (Depended on corn) Influenced by the Aztecs. Need for irrigation led to greater coordination.


Hohokam and Anasazi :Hohokam and Anasazi Drought, overpopulation, and over-reliance on maize led to major problems. Hohokum lost confidence in leaders. Hohokam reverted to hunting and gathering and descendents are called Pima & Papago Indians. Anasazi moved to build new pueblos according to oral traditions of the Pueblo, Zuni, Hopi, and Acoma Indians.


The Mound Builders :The Mound Builders Lived in the Mississippi Valley. Built substantial towns that featured earthen pyramids. Practiced human sacrifices to appease sun god as they needed spiritual harmony with nature. The organizational structure was headed by a chief although power often shifted to different towns. Chronic warfare was a problem.


The Mound Builders :The Mound Builders The most impressive site was at Cahokia. Largest community north of Mexico. Cahokia declined due to overpopulation, disease, exhausted soil, and over-hunting. Chronicled by those part of Hernando de Soto’s expedition. War with Europeans and disease led to their final collapse.


Native American Views on Nature :Native American Views on Nature Native Americans weren’t environmental saints. But they respected nature since they felt its negative consequences. Native Americans felt constrained by spiritual power of nature. Europeans partly justified conquest by saying that Native Americans didn’t dominate nature.


Conclusions :Conclusions Indian groups fought with one another. Few Imperialists. Did not develop market economies like Europeans. Few empires; mostly de-centralized. Power mostly rested with military and spiritual leaders. (Generally not based on economic wealth)