Self and Virtue in Greek Philosophy: Self and Virtue in Greek Philosophy


Ancient Athens: Ancient Athens


Socrates: Socrates


Socrates: Socrates What is courage? Laches (1): “he is a man of courage who does not run away, but remains at his post and fights against the enemy”


Socrates: Socrates But this is too narrow: other kinds of courage Examples?


Too Narrow— and too broad: Too Narrow— and too broad There are other kinds of courage But also, fighting isn’t always courageous Courage Fighting and not running away


Better Definitions: Better Definitions Laches (2): “a sort of endurance of the soul” But what sort of endurance? Laches (3): “a wise endurance of the soul”


Better Definitions?: Better Definitions? Laches (3): “a wise endurance of the soul” But this is too broad. Foolish endurance often seems braver than wise endurance.


Too Narrow— and too broad: Too Narrow— and too broad Sometimes, wise endurance isn’t courageous But also, sometimes, foolish endurance is Courage Wise endurance


Nicias’s Definition: Nicias’s Definition Nicias: “the knowledge of that which inspires fear or confidence” What about the courage of animals? Nicias: courage is more than fearlessness. Word to the wise: Faced with a counterexample, draw a distinction!


Socrates’s Objection: Socrates’s Objection Then courage = all of virtue. Hope and fear are directed at future But there is no division between Knowledge of past Knowledge of present Knowledge of future So, courage = knowledge of good and evil = virtue as a whole


Unity of the virtues: Unity of the virtues Unity of the virtues: courage, piety, wisdom, self-control, justice, etc., are the same Virtue = knowledge of good and evil = knowledge of right and wrong = knowing what to seek and what to avoid = knowing what to do and what not to do


Puzzle: Weakness of will: Puzzle: Weakness of will Weakness of will (akrasia) = knowing the better and doing the worse Paul: “For that which I do I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that I do. . . . For the good that I would I do not; but the evil which I would not, that I do.” (Romans 7:15-19)


Weakness of Will: Example: Weakness of Will: Example I know I should But I don’t exercise want to So, I don’t Knowing the better Doing the worse


Socrates: no weakness of will: Socrates: no weakness of will Socrates: weakness of will is impossible. Virtue = knowledge of good and evil But weakness of will involves knowing good and not doing it Socrates would have to say that’s virtuous But plainly it’s not: it’s not virtuous to do evil Examples?


Socrates: no weakness of will: Socrates: no weakness of will Say John displays weakness of will Weakness of will involves knowing good and not doing it He knows he should exercise, but doesn’t


Socrates: no weakness of will: Socrates: no weakness of will Virtue = knowing what to do and what not to do He knows what to do But he doesn’t do it So, John is virtuous? But that’s absurd So, weakness of will is impossible John doesn’t really know what to do


Plato: Plato


Plato: weakness is possible: Plato: weakness is possible “Consider a case of conflict, in which the person who has willpower resists his desires and the person who is weak of will gives in to them. A person in such a situation seems to be at war with himself.”


Plato: weakness is possible: Plato: weakness is possible “There must, then, be different parts of the soul (aspects of the personality, parts of the self) that are fighting each other.” I should do a I want to do a (or, at least, I want to want to do a) I don’t want to do a


Plato’s Divided Soul: Plato’s Divided Soul Rational element (reason): thinks Appetitive element (desire): wants Spirited element (will): feels


Soul as Chariot: Soul as Chariot “Of the nature of the soul, though her true form be ever a theme of large and more than mortal discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure. And let the figure be composite- a pair of winged horses and a charioteer. Now the winged horses and the charioteers of the gods are all of them noble and of noble descent, but those of other races are mixed; the human charioteer drives his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of ignoble breed; and the driving of them of necessity gives a great deal of trouble to him.”


Plato’s Soul: Plato’s Soul


Kinds of Conflict: Kinds of Conflict Conflict: parts of the soul pull in different directions Rational vs. appetitive element: Reason vs. desire Appetitive vs. spirited element: Desire vs. will Rational vs. spirited element: Reason vs. will


Kinds of Conflict: Kinds of Conflict Reason Desire Will


Virtue as Rational Control: Virtue as Rational Control Resolution: Control by the rational part of the soul. Virtue: Subjecting the horses, especially the ignoble, rebellious horse, to the firm control of the driver. Each must play its proper role. The rational element must dominate the others for a person to be virtuous and happy.


Rationality and Balance: Rationality and Balance


Virtue as Balance: Virtue as Balance Each part of the soul has a role to play, a function Virtue = each part playing its proper role Weakness of will = knowing proper roles, but not being strong enough to force the elements into them


Aristotle: Aristotle


Aristotle: Goods: Aristotle: Goods Instrumental goods: desired for the sake of something else Intrinsic goods: desired for their own sake


Happiness: Happiness One thing is always desired for its own sake, never for the sake of something else: happiness Happiness (eudaimonia) = living well = flourishing What does that require? Prosperity and luck, yes, but more


Living well: Living well What is it to live well? Analogies: A good knife cuts well A good eye sees well A good teacher teaches well


Living well: Living well A good person fulfills his/her function well


Function: Function What is the function of a human being? A thing’s function stems from what is special about it: what distinguishes it from other things Knives cut: sharpness —> cutting Eyes see: ability to see —> seeing Teachers teach: ability to teach —> teaching


Our Function: Our Function What is special about people?


Our Function: Our Function What is special about people? We act according to rational plans


Virtue: Virtue Our function is rational activity A good person succeeds at rational activity


Virtue: Virtue Virtue = excellence Two kinds Excellence in rationality: intellectual virtue Excellence in activity: moral virtue


Intellectual and Moral Virtue: Intellectual and Moral Virtue Virtue = excellence in function = Excellence in rational activity Rational Activity Intellectual virtue Moral virtue


Becoming virtuous: Becoming virtuous Intellectual virtue can be taught Moral virtue can’t be Moral virtue isn’t just knowing, but doing


Weakness of will: Weakness of will One may have intellectual virtue without moral virtue One may know what to do but not do it A weak-willed person lacks the ability to do the right thing, even when he/she knows what it is How can we develop willpower?


How to become good?: How to become good? It requires developing habits We become good by doing good things


What should I do?: What should I do? An act is right if it is something a virtuous person would tend to do What should I do? <== What kind of person should I be?


Practical Wisdom: Practical Wisdom A good person consistently does the right thing at the right time, in the right way, and for the right reason. There is no rule for becoming good, or for distinguishing good from bad, right from wrong. Practical wisdom: ability to draw the right distinctions and tell right from wrong.


Intuitionism: Intuitionism Pluralism: Goods differ in kind Conflict: They sometimes conflict Complexity: There are no exact rules for deciding the outcomes of these conflicts


Moral Rules: Moral Rules At best, practical rules are fainthearted: ceteris paribus, other things being equal Finding balance among competing goods requires judgment-- practical wisdom


Virtue as a Mean: Virtue as a Mean Virtues are means between extremes Virtues constrain desires But we may constrain too little or too much We must give in to desire in the right circumstances, in the right way, for the right reason, etc. Practical wisdom allows us to find the mean


Virtues and Vices: Virtues and Vices Drive Too little Just right Too much Fear cowardly courageous rash Pleasure self-indulgent self-controlled insensitive Material goods stingy generous extravagant Self-esteem vain high-minded small-minded Anger short-tempered gentle apathetic Sociability obsequious friendly grouchy Boasting boastful truthful self-deprecating Humor clownish witty boring Drive for honor ambitious ? unambitious Spending grudging magnificent vulgar