The City in Space and Time : The City in Space and Time The Human Mosaic
Chapter 10
Introduction : Introduction Imagine humankind’s sojourn on Earth as a 24-hour day
Settlements of more than a hundred people are only about a half-hour old
Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes ago
Large-scale urbanization began less than 60 seconds ago
Introduction : Introduction Urbanization in the last 200 years has strengthened links between culture, society, and the city
“Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with the industrial revolution
Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban population more than doubled since 1950
Urban population doubled again by 2000
Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in cities
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil : Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil : Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil Sao Paulo epitomizes the dynamics of urbanization, especially capitalism. Starting as a coffee exporting center, it had less than 32000 inhabitants by 1872. Today metropolitan Sao Paulo is a primate city of more than 20 million. Economic development and flat land engendered population increase and sprawl, rising land costs in the center, and a boom in construction.
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil : Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil Economic success is denoted by the high-rises which are a mix of industrial, commercial and professional office blocks, as well as apartment complexes. City planning is only a recent phenomenon. Rural to urban migration is a serious problem and the city’s rapid growth has outstripped its ability to provide jobs, housing and adequate services.
Culture regions : Culture regions Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Problem of recognizing urban regions : Problem of recognizing urban regions Urbanized population—percentage of a nation’s population living in towns and cities
Striking urbanization difference between countries
Some close to 90 percent
Others less than 20 percent
Culture regions can be based on varying rates of urbanization
We have a pattern of “urban” versus “rural” countries
Problem of recognizing urban regions : Problem of recognizing urban regions Within each nation, we can delimit formal and functional culture regions separating urban and rural domains
There is no agreed-upon international definition of what constitutes a city
India defines an urban center as 5,000 inhabitants, with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural work
The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a densely populated area of 2,500 people or more
South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or more people
Problem of recognizing urban regions : Problem of recognizing urban regions Some countries revise definitions of urban settlements to suit specific purposes
China revised its census definitions with criteria that vary from province to province causing their urban population to swell by 13 percent in 1983
Generalizations : Generalizations Generalizations made about the differences in the world’s urbanized population
Highly industrialized countries have higher rates of urbanized population than do less-developed countries
Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing
Caused by massive migration away from the country
People flock to the cities searching for a better life
Generalizations : Generalizations Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing
City migration is often driven by desperation, as rural supply systems collapse
For newcomers to the cities, unemployment rates are often over 50 percent
One of the world’s ongoing crises will be this radical restructuring of population and culture as people move into the cities
Generalizations : Generalizations Urban growth comes from two sources
Migration of people to the cities
Higher natural population growth rates for recent migrants
Because employment is unreliable, large families construct a more extensive family support system
Increases the chances of someone getting work
Smaller families when a certain dimension of security is ensured
Smaller families often occur when women enter the work force
World cities : World cities Cities over 5 million in population
Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in the developing world
Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was dominated by Western, industrialized cities
Now the list is even more dominated by the developing world
World cities : World cities Mexico City’s growth is linked to Mexico’s oil industry
Some countries are trying to regulate urban growth
Problems with transportation, housing, and employment
Failure or success of these policies will influence city size in the next ten to twenty years
China closely regulates urban growth
World cities : World cities Accurate population projections are evasive because they depend on variables
Primate city — a settlement city that dominates the economic, political, and cultural life of a country
The target for much urban migration
Rapid growth expands its primacy, or dominance
Example of Mexico City — far exceeds Guadalajara, the second-largest city in Mexico, in size and importance
Many developing countries are dominated by a primate city, which was often a former center of colonial power
Primate cities are also found in developed countries —London and Paris
Culture regions : Culture regions Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
The first cities : The first cities In seeking explanation for the origin of cities, we find a relationship between:
Areas of early agriculture
Permanent village settlement
The development of new social forms
Urban life
Early people were nomadic hunters and gatherers who constantly moved
The first cities : The first cities As they became increasingly efficient in gathering resources, their campsites became semi-permanent
As quantities of domesticated plants and animals increased settlement became more permanent
The first cities appeared in the Middle East
Developed about ten thousand years ago
Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than 200 people
Probably organized on a kinship basis
The first cities : The first cities The first cities appeared in the Middle East
Probably organized on a kinship basis
Jarmo, one of the earliest villages
Located in present-day Iraq
Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain storage facilities
Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and barley
Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been used for meat
Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering
The first cities : The first cities In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were involved in some way in food procurement
Cities were more removed, physically and psychologically, from everyday agricultural activities
Food was supplied to the city
Not all city dwellers were involved in actual farming
Another class of city dwellers supplied services — such as technical skills, and religious interpretation
The first cities : The first cities Two elements were crucial to this social change
Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for supporting nonfarmers
Stratified social system
Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower classes
Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of resources
Well-defined channels of authority that exercise control over goods and people
These two set the stage for urbanization
Models for the rise of cities : Models for the rise of cities Technical
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel
Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover behind urbanization
Higher crop yields resulted
Food surplus supported development of a large nonfarming population
Strong, centralized government, backed by an urban-based military
Farmers who resisted new authority were denied water
Models for the rise of cities : Models for the rise of cities Technical
The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl Wittfogel
Power elite needed for organizational coordination to ensure continued operation of the irrigation system
Labor specialization developed
The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban hearths
Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts of Mesoamerica
The question of how or why a culture might first develop irrigation
Models for the rise of cities : Models for the rise of cities Religious
Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating factor behind urbanization
Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions was considered to be within the domain of religion
Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops
Successful harvests led to more support for this priestly class
Priestly class exercised political and social control that held the city together
In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning as ceremonial centers
First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses against spiritual demons or souls of the dead
Models for the rise of cities : Models for the rise of cities Multiple factors
Distinction between economic, religious, and political functions were not always clear
A king may have functioned as priest, healer, astronomer, and scribe
In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused
Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is difficult, if not impossible
It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors behind the changes leading to urban life
Technical, religious, and political forces were often interlinked
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Where the first cities appeared, for example:
Mesopotamia
The Nile Valley
Pakistan’s Indus River Valley
The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in China
Mesoamerica
Next slide gives general dates of urban life emergence for each region
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia
River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now Iraq
Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to two square miles
Populations rarely exceeded 30,000
Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —comparable to today’s cities
Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the city, which was thought to be the center of the known world
Often demarcated by a vertical structure of monumental scale representing the point on Earth closest to the heavens
This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different forms
The ziggurat in Mesopotamia
The palace or temple in China
The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica
The Stupa in the Indus Valley
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China : Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China : Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China This is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the most important ceremonial building in Beijing’s Forbidden City. The hall is set upon an auspicious number of three tiers. From the Gate of Supreme Harmony, the emperor would be carried on his palanquin above the “dragon pavement,” carved with his dragon and other auspicious symbols such as waves, mountains and clouds.
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China : Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China The Forbidden City marked the inner sanctum of the Imperial city, a model of harmony and moral order expressing the Will of Heaven.
Ritual and cosmic correctness was imbued in city form through divination and orientation; cardinal axiality and concentricity; and, square configuration defined by walls and gates.
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the citadel and housed the elite who lived in relative luxury
Streets were paved, drains and running water were provided
Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water closets were provided
Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities, exhibited three spatial characteristics
The city was oriented toward the four cardinal directions
Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the universe
Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered world from the outside chaos
Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the form of the universe
Thought essential to maintain harmony between human and spiritual worlds
Example of Ankor Thorn in India
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities from archaeological evidence
Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and contained three or four rooms
Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and served as the community dump
At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the houses
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed the lower classes
Urban hearth areas : Urban hearth areas Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a regional power structure kept cities from warring with each other
In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a grid that consisted of 16 large blocks
The most important variations in living conditions occurred in Mesoamerica
Cities were less dense and covered large areas
Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow, metallurgy, and draft animals
Domestication of maize compensated for technological shortcomings
Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in tropical climates
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas : The diffusion of the city from hearth areas The two hypotheses of how cities spread in prehistoric times
Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples created new technologies and social institutions
Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most cultures to invent without contact with other urban areas
People must have learned these traits through contact with city dwellers
This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and techniques
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas : The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile and the Indus River valley
Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between the three regions
Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities
Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in Mesopotamian urban sites
An alternate view is that trading took place only after these cities were well established
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas : The diffusion of the city from hearth areas There is evidence of contacts across the oceans between early urban dwellers of the New World and those of Asia and Africa
Unclear if this means urbanization was diffused to Mesoamerica
Maybe some trade routes existed between these peoples
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas : The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal of the city in historical times
City used as vehicle for imperial expansion
Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as empires expand
Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up collection points for local resources
As collection points lose some military atmosphere they begin to show the social diversity of a city
Native people are slowly assimilated into the settlement as workers and may eventually control the city
The process repeats itself as the empire pushes outward
The diffusion of the city from hearth areas : The diffusion of the city from hearth areas Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often met with resistance
Examples of imperial city building dot history
Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities
The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor
The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same city-spreading task
In more recent times, European empires have used city resources to expand and consolidate their power in colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia
Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life over the surface of the Earth
Culture regions : Culture regions Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Introduction : Introduction Patterns seen in the city today are a composite of past and present cultures
Two concepts underlie our examination of urban landscapes
Urban morphology — physical form of the city, which consists of street patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, and density
Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of land uses within a city, or existence of areas with differing functions
The Greek city : The Greek city Western civilization and Western cities trace their roots to ancient Greece
By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding islands
With expansion, cities spread throughout the Mediterranean — to the north shore of Africa, to Spain, southern France, and Italy
Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants
Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves
The Greek city : The Greek city Cities had two distinctive functional zones —the acropolis and the agora
The acropolis was similar in many ways to the citadel of Mesopotamian cities
Had the temples of worship, storehouse of valuables, and seat of power
Served as a place of retreat in time of siege
The Greek city : The Greek city The agora was the province of the citizens
A place for public meetings, education, social interaction, and judicial matters
It was the civic center, the hub of democratic life for Greek men
Later, after the classical period, it became the city’s major marketplace without losing its atmosphere of a social club
The Greek city : The Greek city Physical separation of religious from secular functions implies the religious domain was no longer the only source of authority
Temples were located on sacred sites chosen to please the gods
Temples were also sited and designed to please the human eye and harmonize with the natural landscape
The Greek city : The Greek city Tension created between the religious and secular created what many consider to be one of the greatest achievements of Western architecture
Earlier Greek cities probably grew spontaneously without formal guidelines
Some think many ceremonial areas were designed to be seen according to prescribed lines of vision
The human aesthetic was given a degree of authority not given in cosmomagical cities
The Greek city : The Greek city In later Greek cities a more formalized city design and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma (present-day Turkey)
Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on the physical site conditions
Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational notion of urban life
Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial city
Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had taken a secondary role to pressing demands of controlling an empire
Roman cities : Roman cities Romans adopted many urban traits from the Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the Romans had conquered and absorbed in northern Italy
As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe
Roman cities : Roman cities As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas that had not previously experienced urbanization
Most cities were established as military (castra) and trading outposts
Focal points for collection of local agricultural products
Supply centers for the military
Service centers for long-distance trading network
In England, the trail of city building can be found by looking for the suffixes -caster and -chester indicating cities founded as Roman camps
Roman cities : Roman cities Roman city landscapes
Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek cities — example of Pavia, Italy
The forum — a zone combining elements of the Greek acropolis and agora
Placed at the intersection of a city’s two major thoroughfares
Temples of worship, administrative buildings , and warehouses
Also libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving the common people
Roman cities : Roman cities Roman city landscapes
Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the power elite
Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious
Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again exist
Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses
Often four or five stories high, called insula
System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not extend to the poor
Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into open pits
Even in its best days, Rome’s population was always at the mercy of plagues
Roman cities : Roman cities Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman method for choosing city sites
Remains applicable today
Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind
Empire held together by a complicated system of roads and highways
In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first considered access while other cultures placed emphasis on defensive locations
Numerous old Roman town sites were refounded centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna
Roman cities : Roman cities The Roman Empire was in major decline by A.D. 400
Cities and the highway system that linked them fell into disrepair
The administrative structure collapsed
Outposts were either actively destroyed or simply left to decay
Within 200 years, many of the cities had withered away
Roman cities : Roman cities Some Roman cities in the Mediterranean area managed to survive
Established trade with the Byzantine Empire
After the eighth century, cities in Spain were infused with new vigor by the Moorish Empire
Cities in northern regions became small villages
Urban decline occurred only in areas that had been under Roman rule
The medieval city : The medieval city Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D. 1000 to 1500
Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe
Urban life spread north and east in Europe
Germanic and Slavic people expanded their empires
In only four centuries, 2,500 new German “cities” were founded
Most cities of present-day Europe were founded during this period
The medieval city : The medieval city Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from a combination of factors
Population increase
Political stability and unification
Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations
New Agricultural technologies
Trading networks required protected markets and supply centers, functions that renewed life in cities
Long-distance trading led to the development of a new class of people — the merchant class
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany : Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany : Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany This town reveals three important features of urban morphology: castle, wall, and cathedral. Hirschhorn castle caps the summit of a fortified spur in the bend of the Neckar River, affording a clear view of the river and forested valley.
Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany : Medieval Town: Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany Site factors have also limited expansion forcing people to build onto the walls.
Half-timbering is evident in a number of buildings.
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The fortress
Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The fortress
Usually cities were clustered around a fortified place
Reflected in place names — German -burg, French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The charter
Governmental decree from a regional power granting political autonomy to the town
Freed the population from feudal restrictions
Made the city responsible for its own defense and government
Allowed cities to coin their own money
These freedoms contributed to development of urban social, economic, and intellectual life
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The wall
Symbol of the sharp distinction between country and city
Within the wall most inhabitants were free; outside most were serfs
People inside were able to move about with little restriction
Goods entering the gates were inspected and taxed
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The wall
Nonresidents were issued permits for entry, but often required to leave by sundown when the gates were shut
Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time demanded to be included into the city
If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city, the wall was extended to include them
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The marketplace
Symbolized role of economic activities in the city
City depended on the countryside for food and produce was traded in the market
Center for long-distance trade linking city to city
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The marketplace
At one end stood the fairly tall town hail
Meeting space for city’s political leaders
Market hail for storage and display of finer goods
Brugge, Belgium, had two distinct complexes of buildings at it center
Town hall and castle formed an enclosed square
Next to this was the wasserho.lle, so named because the building straddled a canal where goods could be directly brought directly in from barges
On adjacent edge of marketplace was the great ball that served as meeting spot for merchant class
The medieval city : The medieval city The major functions of the medieval city are depicted in five symbols
The cathedral
Usually the town’s crowning glory
Symbol of the important role of the church
Often close to the marketplace and town ball, indicating close ties between religion, commerce, and politics
Church was often prevailing political force
The medieval city : The medieval city Problems created for contemporary urban life by medieval city morphology and landscape
Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely more than 15 feet wide
Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of streets are too narrow for two- way traffic
The medieval city : The medieval city Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities
Divided into small quarters, or districts, each containing its own cent that served as its focal point
Within each district lived people engaged in similar occupations
The medieval city : The medieval city Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of modern cities
Example of coopers — people who made and repaired wooden barrels
Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild
Church and guildhall were in the small center area of their district
Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops
Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the shop
Apprentices lived above the shop owner
More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near the city center
Those involved in noxious activities lived closer to city walls
The medieval city : The medieval city Some districts were defined by ethnicity
Jews were forced to live in their own district in most medieval cities
In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up moat that had run along the old wall to the city
This area was enclosed by walls with only one guarded gate
The area was not allowed to expand, leading by 1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of the densest districts in the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods : The Renaissance and baroque periods Form and function of the city changed significantly during the Renaissance (1500 — 1600) and baroque (1600-1800) periods
Absolute monarchs arose to preside over a unified nation-state
Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms to join with the king in pursuit of economic gain
City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of regional power structures came to dominate them
Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of European imperial conquest
City planning and military technology acted to remold and constrain the physical form of the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods : The Renaissance and baroque periods A national capital city rose to prominence in most countries
Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes
Power was centralized in its precincts
First office buildings were built to house a growing bureaucracy
Most important, it was restructured to reflect the power of the central government and insure control over urban masses
Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands : Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands
Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands : Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands Amsterdam has always been a commercial city. Situated where dike crossed the Amstel, its harbor was easily accessed from the sea. Essentially at sea level, its quays and streets were flanked by canals.
It flourished as a trading center and by the 17th century, had an extensive collection of warehouses and the largest public bank in northern Europe.
Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands : Capitalism in the Renaissance City: Amsterdam, Netherlands As the city prospered, the walls were expanded and new canals dug to line residential streets designated for a prestigious, residential neighborhood with 30 foot (9.1 meter) lots.
These 17th century merchant homes are only 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide because speculators purchased two 30 foot lots and sold them as three 20 foot lots. The upper story was used for storage of goods.
The Renaissance and baroque periods : The Renaissance and baroque periods Height of baroque planning between 1600 and 1800
During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a building plan in Paris
Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent loose ammunition for rioting Parisians
Streets were straightened and widened, and cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space to maneuver
Baroque Planning: Paris, France : Baroque Planning: Paris, France Parisians were always conscious of the beauty of the Seine and exploited it in the 16h and 17th centuries with bridges and promenades along its banks. These highlights aside, in 1840 the city remained a warren of narrow, filthy and crowded streets.
But under the direction of Napoleon III and Baron Haussman, much of the city was transformed.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France : Baroque Planning: Paris, France Masses of people were displaced as boulevards and avenues, squares and parks, bazaars and arcades, and luxurious housing blocks were installed.
The 19th century was also an era of exhibitions where nations showed off their art and technology to the world.
In 1889, Paris displayed Gustave Eiffel’s tower, the world’s highest structure, testament to the age of iron and steel.
The photo is taken from Ile de la Cite, Parish’ original island site in the Seine River.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France : Baroque Planning: Paris, France
The Renaissance and baroque periods : The Renaissance and baroque periods
Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings were demolished
Many ended up in congested working-class sections of east and north Paris
The east and north sections are still crowded today
In these developments, we see the coming modern city
Washington, D.C., originally designed by a French planner