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Sound Exposure of Southern Resident Killer Whales : Sound Exposure of Southern Resident Killer Whales Rachael M. Griffin B.Sc April 2006


INTRODUCTION : INTRODUCTION ABSTRACT SUMMARY BACKGROUND METHOLOGY RESULTS DISCUSSION


ABSTRACT : ABSTRACT Southern Residents are listed as endangered. Noise is a serious form of environmental pollution. The purpose of this project was to determine effects of whale-watch noise on killer whale echolocation range. The Acoustic Monitoring Program (AMP) sampled noise levels using a calibrated hydrophone during whale-watch activities.


SUMMARY : SUMMARY A total of 200, 1-min samples were recorded. Noise level range was from 106 to 146 dB RMS // 1μPa. Average annual decrease in foraging space ranged from 15 to 20%. This in combination with avoidance energy expenditure gives a total of 18 to 23% in potential annual energy costs due to whale-watching. Reducing the fraction of time whales are exposed to increased noise levels would increase effective killer whale foraging area. Managing the noise emitted from the commercial whale-watch industry is an important measure for population recovery. This research provides an important step in implementing future whale-watch guidelines.


BACKGROUND : BACKGROUND Killer Whales National Recovery Strategy National Marine Conservation Areas Whale Watching Vessel Noise Killer Whale Acoustics Active Space Sonar Equation Foraging Tactics


Killer Whales : Killer Whales There are four distinct populations of killer whales in British Columbia two populations of fish eaters (Northern and Southern Vancouver Island summer residents), a population of meat eaters (transient killer whales), and a fourth population that rarely come into coastal waters, called offshores (Ford & Ellis 1999). Resident killer whales live all their lives in stable social groups comprised of related family units. Males live on average for 30 years (up to 60), and females for 50 (up to 90 years) (Ford et. al. 2000). Males reach sexual maturity at 20 years of age and females first start calving from 12 to 14 years of age. Gestation is 16 to 17 months and females have on average 5 offspring over a 25 year period (Ford et. al. 2000). Resident killer whale calf mortality rate is over 40% for the first six months of life. Pods are the usual social group of killer whales and are made up of related matrilines (Ford 1991). Matrilineal groups are comprised of the oldest female and her descendents (Bigg et al. 1990, Ford 1991). The Southern Resident killer whale population contains three pods (J1, K1, and L1), and 20 matrilines. There are approximately 90 Southern Residents compared to over 200 Northern Residents.


National Recovery Strategy : National Recovery Strategy In 2001, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Species in Canada (COSEWIC) placed the British Columbia Southern Resident killer whale population on its Endangered species list. The Northern Residents and Transients are listed as Threatened and Offshores are Special Concern. The Southern Resident killer whale population is small and declined by 17% between 1995 and 2001 (NRS 2005). Southern Resident killer whale summer territory is proposed as critical habitat for this endangered population (National Recovery Strategy of Canada 2005). Marine wildlife in the area is increasingly threatened by toxic contamination, loss of habitat, declining food supply, global climate change, and disturbance from a high volume of vessel traffic. Commercial and recreational whale watching in this region has experienced extensive growth over the past decade (Osborne et. al. 2002, Foote et. al. 2004).


Southern Resident Habitat : Southern Resident Habitat The Southern Resident pods are most frequently seen during the summer months in the trans-boundary waters of the Salish Sea (Strait of Georgia, Haro Strait, Juan de Fuca Strait, and Puget Sound). Figure 1. Critical summer habitat of the Endangered Southern Resident killer whale population (map modified from National Recovery Strategy 2005).


NMCA : NMCA National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCA) are types of marine protected areas managed by Parks Canada. Established by the National Marine Conservation Areas Act. Implemented to preserve the structure and function of unique ecosystems. Designed to represent Canada’s biodiversity, encourage research, and protect depleted species. Areas include: at least one zone that allows ecologically sustainable use of marine resources, and at least one zone that fully protects special features or sensitive ecosystems elements.


Southern Strait of Georgia : Southern Strait of Georgia The Southern Strait of Georgia consists of the waters between Vancouver and Victoria. It is among the most productive of all marine ecosystems in the world. Upwelling causes mixing of fresh and oceanic water. Resulting in a nutrient rich, highly productive, marine environment. Scientists, fisherman, and community members have identified marine biodiversity hotspots for this area. Zones include important areas for the protection of the Southern Resident killer whale population. Figure 2. Zoning considerations for the Southern Strait of Georgia National Marine Conservation Area (http://www.cpawsbc.org/marine/sites/ssg_map.php)


National Park Reserve : National Park Reserve The National Park Reserve was established in the Southern Gulf Islands and offers the opportunity for the public to learn and experience these spectacular coastal ecosystems. Figure 3. Southern Gulf Island National Park Reserve (http://www.pc.gc.ca/voyage-travel/pv-vp/itm12-/page13_e.asp) Submerged Lands Protected Areas


Marine Stewardship Area : Marine Stewardship Area San Juan County has developed a Marine Stewardship Area to protect their unique and valuable marine resources while allowing sustainable use of marine resources. Figure 4. San Juan Island Marine Stewardship Area (http://sjcmrc.org/programs/stewardship_MPAs.htm)


Whale Watching : Whale Watching Recovery plans for the endangered Southern Resident killer whale population include investigation into their acoustic habitat. Vessel noise has been identified as a possible factor in the decline of abundance of this population (Federal Register 2004, Krahn et. al. 2004, Bain et. al. 2002). Vessel traffic is estimated to increase the energy expenditure of killer whales by 3% per year (Trites and Bain 2000, Williams et. al. 2002ab). Similar responses have been observed in other cetaceans (Nowacek et. al. 2001). In the 1990s, the effects of whale watching may have exceeded changes in fish abundance accounting for a correlation between fleet size and population size.


Slide14 : Fleet size SRKW population size Figure 5. Southern Resident killer whale population numbers and commercial whale-watch growth (Bain 2002b). During the 1990s killer whale abundance starts to track increases in commercial whale-watch fleet size.


Vessel Noise : Vessel Noise Vessels produce underwater noise within killer whale hearing and vocalization ranges. Engines operating at high speeds (Rotations per Minute, RPM): produce higher intensity sounds which are, distributed over broader frequency ranges than vessels traveling at low RPM. Outboard motorboats operating at high speed create source levels from 165dB to 175dB with frequencies above 20kHz (Bain 2002b). Source levels for small boats range from 141dB to 161dB with frequency ranges from 860Hz to 8kHz (Williams et. al. 2002a). Large commercial ships produce source levels over 180dB with frequency ranges of 100Hz to 8kHz (Galli et. al. 2003).


Vocalizations : Vocalizations Echolocation active detection and ranging of prey and marine environment. killer whales generate broad-frequency clicks and listen to reflected echoes (Berta and Sumich 1994). centre frequencies of echolocation clicks range from 45 to 80kHz, bandwidths are between 35 to 50kHz, and have source levels from 195 to 224dB // 1µPa (Awbrey et. al. 1982, Au et. al. 2004). Calls repetitious pulsed tones maintain group cohesion and integrity (Ford et. al. 2000). fundamental frequencies of discretely pulsed calls range from 300Hz to 6 kHz and have source levels of 160dB (Richardson et. al. 1995, Miller 2002). Whistles pure tones used for close-range communication (Thomsen et. al. 2001). predominantly between 6 to 12 kHz (Richardson et. al. 1995).


Resident Killer Whale Hearing : Resident Killer Whale Hearing Sound can interfere with killer whale hearing by masking biologically meaningful signals or causing hearing loss. Hearing loss could be temporary (Temporary Threshold Shifts, TTS) or permanent (Permanent Threshold Shifts, PTS). Permanent Threshold Shifts occur at higher sound exposure levels than the onset of Temporary Threshold Shifts. In urban areas (relatively louder zones than quiet areas) masking effects would be more significant on killer whales than hearing loss (Bain 2002b). Noise can mask killer whale vocalizations (Szymanski et. al. 1998, 1999, Bain and Dahlheim 1994). Auditory masking resulting from sound exposure may have long-term biological significance on the fitness of killer whales. Masking occurs with the greatest of magnitude directly in front of resident killer whales (Bain and Dahlheim 1994). The extent of noise interference with signal detection depends on the loudness of received levels.


Active Space : Active Space Active space is the area of space over which an echolocation click can function. As noise levels increase the functional range of clicks decreases. Increase from ambient level reduces the amount of pulse transmission loss that the whales can tolerate. This results in a reduction of the maximum prey detection zone. An increase in 12dB from ambient decreases foraging distance approximately by half (Bain 2002b).


Sonar Equation : Sonar Equation The sonar equation gives quantitative determination of the decrease in relative echolocation transmission distance due to increased noise levels. DT = SL - 2TL + TS - NR => R = 10[-0.025 (NR - NRo)] R = transmission distance (Au 1993) NR = received noise level NRo = minimum ambient level DT = maximum echolocation detection threshold TL = transmission loss of click (TL = 20 log R) SL = echolocation source levels (independent of noise) TS = target strength (independent of noise) Figure 7. Relative change in echolocation transmission range at different environmental noise levels (Bain 2002b). Linear Search (R) Planar Search (R2) Volumetric (R3)


Foraging Tactics : Foraging Tactics Change in foraging efficiency depends on search tactics (Bain 2002a). These strategies can be broken into four separate models (Bain 2002b). Fixed Location Model: whales know location of prey noise levels have no effect on foraging efficiency Linear Search Model: whales and fish are on the same path if whales do not use echolocation, noise levels have no effect effect could be linearly proportional to echolocation range Planar Search Model: prey are in a two-dimensional fixed location (ie: certain depths, along the bottom) Planar Models: whales swim through the same plane as prey linear effect whales swim perpendicular to the plane of prey effect is proportional to the square of the echolocation range Volumetric Search Model: prey could be anywhere in the water column main food source for resident killer whales is Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytschu) making up over 60% of their diet (Ford et. al. 1998). Chinook salmon are distributed in such a way that would require volumetric searches (Bain 2002b).


Objectives : Objectives Identify received sound levels of the Southern Resident killer whale habitat. Determine impacts of increased sound on killer whale prey detection range. Studies have been conducted to measure ambient noise and source levels from commercial whale-watch vessels (Bain 2002a, Erbe 2002, Galli et. al. 2003), this project is the first to measure received noise levels. Facilitate calculation in energy acquisition reduction resulting from commercial whale-watch noise. Assist estimation of total whale-watch effect on killer whales. Further the development of whale-watch regulations. Promote the continuation of a vital economic resource while ensuring the recovery of the endangered Southern Resident killer whale population.


METHODS : METHODS The study was conducted from Saturna to Lopez Islands. Standardized notes were taken on sea-state, location, killer whale behaviour, and vessel traffic for each sixty-second sample. Recordings were made during whale-watch activity, were above sea state, and other natural factors. Measurements were analyzed to determine distribution of noise exposure experienced by the Southern Resident killer whales during commercial whale-watching practices. The reduction in energy acquisition was calculated resulting from vessel noise. Commercial whale-watch vessels have been reported to be with the whales for approximately 90% of daylight hours (Bain 2002b). Carrying capacity (K) is the number of animals in a population that can be supported by a given area (Berta and Sumich 1999). During a six month whale-watch season, whales are estimated to be accompanied 25% of the time (50% of a six month whale-watch season) and change in carrying capacity is approximately 3% due to whale-watch vessel avoidance.


MATERIALS : MATERIALS Samples were made with a Brüel & Kjær 8105 hydrophone and 2635 amplifier. The hydrophone is spherical, omnidirectioanl, and has a voltage sensitivity of -205 dB // 1V/Pa. Frequency range of the transducer is 0.1 Hz to 100 kHz. The hydrophone was lowered to 10m depth and recordings were made with engines off in the presence of both whales and boats. The amplifier is equipped with a push button activated test oscillator, which applies a calibrated sinusoidal signal to the input. A portable digital recorder, Marantz PMD660, was used to create I-minute wav files directly onto the device’s Flash Card with 16-bit resolution and 44.1kHz sampling frequency. Files were analyzed with OVAL (Orca Vocalization and Localization) acoustic software. The computer program was used to calculate loudness level (root-mean square, RMS) of sample waveforms.


RESULTS : RESULTS Total number of samples recorded was 200. The minimum value of received levels was 106 dB RMS // 1μPa. Figure 8. Received sound level (dB RMS // 1μPa) recorded per sample. Median and maximum values were 128, and 146 dB RMS // 1μPa.


Echolocation Range : Echolocation Range The total reduction in echolocation range was determined from decreased transmission distance of echolocation clicks. Exposure to noise levels above minimum ambient level (106 dB RMS // 1μPa) may have decreased foraging space from 15 to 20% per year. The noise level effect on foraging efficacy was on average 15% for the linear, 19% for the planar, and 20% for volumetric search models. Table 1 shows noise level effects on active space and annual energy costs on the echolocation ability of Southern Resident killer whales for linear, planar, and volumetric foraging tactics.


DISCUSSION : DISCUSSION The Southern Resident killer whale population is threatened with extinction. This project sampled the acoustic environment of their summer habitat. The objective of this research was to determine received noise levels the whales are exposed to during whale-watch activities and to what affect it has on their population growth. Minimum received sound level was 106 dB RMS // 1μPa and is near reported levels for Southern Resident habitats (95 dB RMS // 1μPa; Galli et. al. 2003, 108 dB RMS // 1μPa; Bain 2002a). Median and maximum levels were 128 dB and 146 dB RMS // 1μPa respectively. Noise levels increased from minimum ambient level by 40 dB RMS // 1μPa. Williams et. al. (2002ab) and Kruse (1991) found vessel traffic affected behavior in ways that might increase energy expenditure. Bain (2002a) suggested noise from vessels might reduce foraging efficiency by masking echolocation and in turn reducing foraging behavior. Due to the popularity of whale watching, killer whales can be exposed to a great deal of vessel traffic so even if the effects of a single vessel are small there is potential for cumulative effects. Estimated reduction in active foraging space due to increased noise levels was from 15 to 20%. Adding boat avoidance behaviours equates to 18 to 23% in a total reduction in carrying capacity due to whale-watch activities.


Acoustic Management : Acoustic Management Actively managing the acoustic environment is essential for the protection of this endangered population of whales. The Southern Resident killer whales are important top predators for the unique ecosystem of the Southern Strait of Georgia National Marine Conservation Area. Southern Resident killer whale summer habitat is increasingly threatened by the continual growth of the commercial whale-watch industry. Measuring the actual received sound levels that the whales are exposed can estimate the long-term effects on population growth. Whale-watch guidelines are important to reduce masking of killer whale vocalizations. This could be accomplished by: decreasing the number of boats below the number of matrilines not all whales are watched all the time having boats close together would accomplish the same affect decreasing noise from vessels, reducing noise produced propulsion types and operating speeds increasing distance between vessels and whales limiting the time vessels spend with whales seasonal closures, time of day limitations, area closures Closing quiet zones to commercial whale watching would increase foraging space on average by 79% while whales are in protected areas.


Future Research : Future Research Further research is necessary to make strong conclusions on the effects commercial whale watching has on killer whale foraging efficiency and fitness. Future investigations involve: sampling areas when no boats are present, to determine the complete range of received noise levels the whales experience areas need to be investigated to determine relative amounts of shipping, recreational, commercial whale-watch, and ambient noise obtaining commercial whale-watch logbooks would determine actual time the whales are exposed to industry determining source levels of makes of commercial whale-watch vessels and engines would reveal quiet models These studies would increase the resolution and assist the estimation of effects on killer whale energy costs.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS : ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Friday Harbour Laboratories, University of Washington, Beam Reach, Whale Museum, Soundwatch, Whale Watch Operators Association Northwest (WWOANW), and Parks Canada for their assistance and support throughout the study process.


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REFERENCES : REFERENCES Bain, D. E., Anderson, W., Felleman, F., Harris, M., Higgins, P. (2002) Orca Recovery Conference Report. Earth Island Institute. www.earthisland.org/immp/orca/orcreportfinal.pdf Bigg, M. A., Olesiuk, P. F., Ellis, G. M., Ford, J. K. B., Balcomb, K. C. (1990) Social organization and genealogy of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the coastal waters of British Columbia and Washington State. Report of the International Whaling Commission Special Issue No. 12. Berta, A., Sumich, J. L. (1999) Marine Mammals: Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, London. Erbe, C. (2002) Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science, 18: 394 - 418. Federal Register (2004) Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: proposed threatened status for Southern Resident Killer Whales. 69: 76673-76682. Foote, A. D., Osborne, R. W., Hoelzel, A. R. (2004) Whale-call response to masking boat noise. Nature. 428:910.


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REFERENCES : REFERENCES Miller, P. J. O. (2002) Mixed-directionality of killer whale stereotyped calls: a direction of movement cue? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 52:262-270. NRS (2005) Canadian Southern Resident killer whale National Recovery Strategy. http://www-comm.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pages/consultations/marinemammals/RKWrecoverystrategy_e.htm Norwacek, S. M., Wells, R. S., Solow, A. R (2001) Short-term effects of boat traffic on bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncates, in Sarasota Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science. 17: 673-688. Osborne, R., Koski, K., Otis, R. (2002) Trends in whale watching traffic around southern resident killer whales. The Whale Museum, Friday Harbor, Washington. Richardson, W. J., Greene, C. R., Malme, C. I., Thomson, D. H. (1995) Marine mammals and noise. Academic Press, San Diego. Szymanski, M. D., Supin, A. Ya., Bain, D. E., Henry, K. R. (1998) Killer whale (Orcinus orca) auditory evoked potentials to rhythmic clicks in killer whales. Marine Mammal Science. 14: 676-691.


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