Development : Development The Growth of Mind & Consciousness Professor Willis Overton Department of Psychology
http://astro.temple.edu/overton/overton.html
Locating the Mind In Contemporary Psychology : Locating the Mind In Contemporary Psychology
J.B Watson and Behaviorism S - R Skinner and Behaviorism ----------------------------------- Cognitive Revolution Study mental processes through objective measures. : J.B Watson and Behaviorism S - R Skinner and Behaviorism ----------------------------------- Cognitive Revolution Study mental processes through objective measures.
Behaviorism : Stimulus Response Environment Behavior Behaviorism
Slide5 : Stimulus Response Body
(Brain)
(Instinct & Needs)
(Motor Systems)
Slide6 : Stimulus Response Environment Behavior
Body
(Brain)
(Instinct & Needs)
(Motor Systems) MIND
Mind : Mind Basis for sensation , perception, and volition (intentional action)
Descartes mind body-problem
Today some think that mind is result of brain activity
MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings. : MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings.
System/Organization : System/Organization Mind is an active psychological organ.
Mind is ‘psyche’, the psychological person.
‘MENTAL STRUCTURES’ describe the organization.
Theorists of mind, (e.g., Jean Piaget, Sigmund Freud, and Erik Erikson) use terms like “operations,” “scheme,” “ego” and “super-ego” for mental structures.
Mind not directly seen but inferred from its products.
Type of System/Organization : Type of System/Organization 1.) Computer as model. “Information processing" theories "Artificial Intelligence" theories
2.) Dynamic systems as model. “Systems" theories “Dynamic" theories “Dynamic Systems" theories. Example: Piaget and Erikson theories
MIND An active system or organization of COGNITIVE, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings. : MIND An active system or organization of COGNITIVE, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings.
Cognition = Knowing : Cognition = Knowing Cognitive processes refer to actions involved in the construction, acquisition, maintenance, change, or implementation of meanings.
Cognitive content refers to specific meanings (concepts, facts, propositions, rules, memories)
Cognitive Processes : Cognitive Processes a. Perception: Involves meanings being applied to our seeing or hearing or tasting or touching things.
b. Memory: Involves the activity of maintaining meanings that we have.
c. Thinking: Involves how we construct new meanings using symbols.
Cognitive Processes : Cognitive Processes d. Language: Involves how we express and communicate meanings symbolically.
e. Problem solving: Involves implementing meanings.
‘Judgments’, ‘Decisions’, ‘Inferences” are procedures for implementing meanings
MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, CONATIVE, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings. : MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, CONATIVE, and affective meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings.
Conation = Motivation : Conation = Motivation motives,
intentions,
wishes,
desires,
strivings
MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and AFFECTIVE meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings. : MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and AFFECTIVE meanings or understandings, along with procedures for implementing and changing these meanings.
Affect, Emotions, Feelings : Affect, Emotions, Feelings
Affect is the general concept that includes emotion and feelings.
Emotions are patterns of activity – biological and behavioral
Feelings are the conscious mental reflections on emotions. Happy (joy, elation), sad, fear, anger, surprise, disgust, embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride, jealousy.
MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with PROCEDURES for implementing and changing these meanings. : MIND An active system or organization of cognitive, conative, and affective meanings or understandings, along with PROCEDURES for implementing and changing these meanings.
Procedures for Implementing & Changing Meanings. : Procedures for Implementing & Changing Meanings.
These are various processes, mechanisms, strategies that we will discuss more of later
‘Judgments’, ‘Decisions’, ‘Inferences” are examples of procedures for implementing meanings
Consciousness & Mind : Consciousness & Mind Consciousness = “subjective awareness“ The fundamental characteristic of Mind.
Slide22 : Levels of consciousness = “states of consciousness = qualitatively different patterns of subjective awareness.”
Levels of Consciousness : Levels of Consciousness 1. Core Consciousness: Wakefulness, Attention to stimuli. Attention focused & extended Background emotions flow continuously Spontaneous behavior is purposeful
Levels of Consciousness : Levels of Consciousness 2. Extended Consciousness: a. Involves sense of self and sense of objects (Self consciousness) b. Each higher level of extended consciousness involves ability to reflect on lower levels. c. Each higher level is outcome of process to be discussed.
The Unconscious : The Unconscious As special mental process (Freud)
As non-conscious. “Cognitive unconscious” (p. 297 text).
Preconscious. Processes that operate below the threshold of extended consciousness while influencing extended conscious thought and behavior ( p. 297)
Functions of Mind & Consciousness : Functions of Mind & Consciousness Mediate between body and world. Thus at extended levels it a) Monitors self and environment (p. 293 of text) b) Controls cognition, motivation, affect and behavior (see p. 294 of text)
Mind (The Person) – Biology--Culture : Mind (The Person) – Biology--Culture A. Mind and Body (Brain)
Dualism -- Descartes.
Reductionistic (‘nothing but’)
Monism
Brain = Mind
Slide30 : Embodiment (Non-reductionist).
Perception, thinking, feelings, desires -- that is, the way we behave, experience, and live the world -- is contextualized by our being active agents with this particular kind of body-brain. Kind of body-brain we have is a precondition for our having the kind of behaviors, experiences, and meanings that we have
Culture Culture Embodied Agent Acting in Culture Culture Culture : Culture Culture Embodied Agent Acting in Culture Culture Culture
NEXT LECTURE Nature of Development Types of Development Explanations of Development : NEXT LECTURE Nature of Development Types of Development Explanations of Development
Development -- General : Development -- General About change
About ordered sequence Definition Relatively permanent change that moves towards some final end, final state, final system.
Developmental Psychology : Developmental Psychology About change of Psyche (i.e., mind and consciousness).
Across life span from fertilization of egg through phases of life to adulthood.
Developmental Change Two Types : Developmental Change Two Types Transformational: Change of form/organization. (e.g., water/ice/steam)
Variational: Change around a norm. (e.g., get better at a skill)
Developmental Change Two Types : Developmental Change Two Types Transformational: Change of form/organization. (e.g., water/ice/steam)
Variational: Change around a norm. (e.g., get better at a skill)
Slide39 : DEVELOPMENT
TYPES OF CHANGE
TRANSFORMATIONAL VARIATIONAL
EMERGENCE ------------------
NOVELTY --------------
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
DISCONTINUITY CONTINUITY
STAGE -------------------
Explanation I: Models of Person Empiricist (Behaviorist) : Explanation I: Models of Person Empiricist (Behaviorist) Person Environment
Lump of Matter Sculpture
Tabula Rasa Engraver (Blank Slate)
Explanation I: Models of Person Nativist (Cognitive/Evolutionary) : Explanation I: Models of Person Nativist (Cognitive/Evolutionary) Person Environment
Steel Filing Cabinet Filing Clerk (Computer)
Explanation I: Models of Person Action/Interaction or Dynamic Systems : Explanation I: Models of Person Action/Interaction or Dynamic Systems Person Environment
A Living Plant Gardener
Explanation II: Nature-Nurture : Explanation II: Nature-Nurture
Nature – (i.e. Biology, heredity, maturation, genes, instinct, innate factors). The Nativists or Steel Filing Cabinet Model
Versus
Nurture – (i.e., Environment, learning, practice).
The Empiricists or Lump of Matter, Blank Slate Model.
WHICH ONE? : WHICH ONE?
HOW MUCH? : HOW MUCH?
Kinship Studies Heritability Index : Kinship Studies Heritability Index Environment is assumed to be same in 2 groups (identical twins/fraternal twins)
H = r (ident twins) minus r (frat twins)
1 minus r (frat twins)
. So, if any difference the difference must be due to the only thing that is different in the two groups, i.e., the genes
Fallacy: Environments are never the same (e.g., prenatal development) (e.g., way that twins make own differentiated environments) : Fallacy: Environments are never the same (e.g., prenatal development) (e.g., way that twins make own differentiated environments)
Conclusion – Nature/Nurture : Conclusion – Nature/Nurture The Which One & How Much Solutions do not work.
Need a different approach than the Empiricist-Nativist models.
Turn to The Action Interactionist (Co-Action) or Dynamic Systems Solution. Understand development according to the plant model.
Dynamic Systems Solution : Dynamic Systems Solution The two factors (nature/nurture) cannot be separated. Development is the product of the coaction between nature and nurture at every level from DNA in relation to its environment, to the genetic in relation to its environment, to the cell in relation to its environment, to the embryo in relation to its environment, to the infant in relation to its environment etc. etc
Dynamic Systems Solution : Dynamic Systems Solution All behavior, all features of mind are both 100% biological and 100% environmental
Genes are necessary – no matter what environment you have – the plant is going to be a tomato plant. However, the timing and characteristics of the environment are just as necessary.
Dynamic Systems Solution : Dynamic Systems Solution This leads to Dynamic Systems exploring a How? Question
How are specific biological factors and how are specific environmental factors related to the growth of mind, consciousness, and behavior (e.g., How specific chromosome? How specific parenting style? relate to timing.)
Explanation III: Action and Experience : Explanation III: Action and Experience
Given Dynamic Systems solution
Given Plant model of person
Question
What explains development? What is the Mechanism of development?
Answer ACTION of the organized active system
Slide56 : PROJECTION
SOCIO CULTURAL & PHYSICAL
WORLD
COGNITION(knowing) CONATION (wishing) AFFECT (feeling) SELF-ORGANIZING ACTION SYSTEMS PERSON-LEVEL SUB-PERSON-LEVEL AGENCY LIVING BODY EMBODIMENT PERSON EXPLORATION ACTION VARIATION BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
Slide57 : PROJECTION
SOCIO CULTURAL & PHYSICAL
WORLD
COGNITION(knowing) CONATION (wishing) AFFECT (feeling) SELF-ORGANIZING ACTION SYSTEMS PERSON-LEVEL SUB-PERSON-LEVEL AGENCY LIVING BODY EMBODIMENT PERSON EXPLORATION ACTION VARIATION EXPERIENCE
Slide58 :
SOCIO CULTURAL & PHYSICAL
WORLD
PERSON EXPLORATION VARIATION Transformation Variation ACT Assimilation Accommodation
DEVELOPMENT IS ALWAYS THE RESULT OF ACTION THAT ARISES OUT OF THE ORGANIZATION OF MIND (Assimilation) AND RETURNS TO CHANGE THE ORGANIZATION OF MIND (Accommodation) : DEVELOPMENT IS ALWAYS THE RESULT OF ACTION THAT ARISES OUT OF THE ORGANIZATION OF MIND (Assimilation) AND RETURNS TO CHANGE THE ORGANIZATION OF MIND (Accommodation)
NEXT LECTURE Prenatal Development ------------------------------------------- Infant as Competent Action Systems ------------------------------------------ Piaget’s Theory: Development of the Cognitive Dimension of Mind : NEXT LECTURE Prenatal Development ------------------------------------------- Infant as Competent Action Systems ------------------------------------------ Piaget’s Theory: Development of the Cognitive Dimension of Mind
Prenatal Development (Example of transformational change) : Prenatal Development (Example of transformational change)
Slide63 : Germinal 2 wks --- Embryonic 3rd-8 wks -- Fetal 9wks-birth
Neonate (Newborn infant) as Organization of Action Systems : Neonate (Newborn infant) as Organization of Action Systems
A. Old Incompetent Infant Story: Infant = lump of matter model with reflexes added. The empiricist’s story.
B. Newer Super-Competent Infant Story: Infant = steel filing cabinet model. The nativist story.
Neonate (Newborn infant) as Organization of Action Systems : Neonate (Newborn infant) as Organization of Action Systems
C. Recent Action Systems Competent Infant Story: Infant = the plant model. The co-action dynamic systems story.
Action systems available at birth termed ‘congenital’ or ‘preadapted’ to distinguish them from ‘innate,’ which not only means present at birth, but also means explained by biology alone.
Three Congenital Action Systems (Instruments for Constructing Mind) : Three Congenital Action Systems (Instruments for Constructing Mind) 1. Sensory Systems Vision Hearing Olfaction Taste
2. Motor Systems
Perceptual Action (e.g., Fantz, Haith) Sucking --- A system, not a reflex Reaching
Three Congenital Action Systems (Instruments for Constructing Mind) : Three Congenital Action Systems (Instruments for Constructing Mind) 3. Relational Systems (Systems designed to keep caregiver in proximity)
Visual – EYE GAZE: Infant locks eyes onto eyes of holding person Smell: Neonate prefers (orients towards) mother’s smell (milk pads) rather than to another’s Auditory-Vocal: Get “PROTO- CONVERSATIONS”, i.e., turn-taking in utterances, very early (two to three months) in development.
Temperament A fourth congenital action system : Temperament A fourth congenital action system Differs from other three in that it cuts across them. & Is bout individual differences in quality and intensity of action.
Definition: Temperament refers to congenital dispositions that underlie and modulate the expression of activity, reactivity, emotionality, and sociability.
Piaget’s Theory of the Cognitive Dimension of Mind. : Piaget’s Theory of the Cognitive Dimension of Mind. Neonate = integration of organized action systems.
Piaget’s theory explains how, through action(assimilation/accommodation/equilibration) in the world, organism constructs and transforms mind and consciousness.
The discontinuous qualitative transformations of mind which exhibit novel characteristics Piaget describes as ‘stages’:
Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) : Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos)
A. Practical action, Not thinking
Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) : Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) B. 3rd month.
Through action, congenital systems transformed into mental organizations ‘schemes. ’
Schemes (e.g. sucking scheme, looking scheme, grasping scheme are characterized by the first level of consciousness, a core consciousness. Get also first beginnings of a sense of self -- termed 'ecological self'.
Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) : Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) C Around 6 months.
Beginning of ‘Object Permanence’.
Object Permanence is an index that infant has a sense of ‘self’ as distinguished from ‘object’ or ‘other’ This is the clear sense of 'ecological self'.
Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos) : Piaget’s Stages: Sensori-Motor Stage (0-24mos)
D. 10 months. Another transformation of mind. The novelty is a new level of consciousness that allows conscious reflection on schemes.
Clearer development of a ‘volitional self’ and beginning of an extended consciousness.
Conscious reflection on grasping, pulling, pushing, looking, reaching means these schemes can be organized. So have volitional intentional actions.
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs)
Next transformation.
Novelty is a new level of extended consciousness that allows reflection on organized schemes (i.e., reflections on reflections on schemes).
Mental structures that develop here are called ‘operations’. These are co ordinations of the coordinated schemes.
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) Novelty is called ‘thinking’.
Thinking defined as the manipulation of symbols.
Rather than just acting (schemes), or manipulating action (coordination of schemes), now can manipulate coordinations using symbols.
a. Next lecture, discussion of ‘symbols’ and ‘representation’ and ‘language’.
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs)
New level leads to a new level of ‘Self’
a. Symbolic Self: Recognizes self in mirror.
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs)
‘Egocentrism’ thinking about the world as if everyone shares the same perceptions and thought, or same point of view.
Appears with beginning of thinking and gradually declines.
a. Three mountain task as an index of egocentrism.
Slide84 : Baby Doll
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (24mos- 4 yrs)
Thinking with only islands of logic.
Fragmented thinking. Seeing is believing. Thinking in the immediate situation in sense of not reflecting on thinking.
Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (3 or 4 -7 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Pre-operational Stage (3 or 4 -7 yrs) 1. Transformation here allows level of consciousness for thinking about thinking.
2. Child develops a ‘theory of mind’. Idea that others have thoughts as child does. This is the end of egocentricism.
3. A new sense of self, the Conceptual Self. A self that thinks about itself.
4. Still lacks a coherent framework (logic) within which to fit thinking.
Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) 1. Mental operations that allow thinking about thinking become coordinated. Gives coherence to reflective thought and coherence = logic. Some refer to these operations “Rules that guide reason.”
2. Novelty at this stage is thinking that is logical.
3. The Conservation Task is one index of concrete operational thinking.
a. ‘Conservation’ is defined as ability to maintain a constant (unchanging) concept in the face of perceptual change.
Conservation Tasks : Conservation Tasks © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. x
Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs)
Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) : Piaget’s Stages: Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs)
. Weakness of this type of thinking. It is about only the concrete real and fantasy world, not about the world of endless possibilities
Piaget’s Stages: Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs plus) : Piaget’s Stages: Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs plus) 1. Coordination of concrete operations.
2. Novelty is ability to think logically about logical thought.
3. Allows one to begin from abstract principles and proceed to concrete specifics. Thought earlier could proceed only inductively (from specific particulars to abstract universals. Now can also proceed deductively (from general principles to specific particulars.
A. Measured via logical tasks
Piaget’s Stages: Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs plus) : Piaget’s Stages: Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs plus) 4. Can imagine worlds that have never been.
5. Can perform scientific thinking of controlling all variables and manipulating one.
6. Can plan and make logical judgments and logical decisions.
7. Higher levels of Self and Consciousness
Post Formal Stage? : Post Formal Stage? 1. Some have claimed yet another Stage of thought development. However there is very little evidence for this. Generally this seems to be enough levels of reflection to deal with adult problems.
Doesn’t mean development ends. Will see motivational and affective development continue when turn to Erik Erikson. Your text mentions the development of Wisdom. This is a dimension of thinking that deeply involves affective and motivational issues
NEXT LECTURE 5 Cognition in Toddlerhood & Beyond -------------------------------------------- The Role of the Environment in the Development of Mind. : NEXT LECTURE 5 Cognition in Toddlerhood & Beyond -------------------------------------------- The Role of the Environment in the Development of Mind.
Thinking: Representation & Symbols ------------------------- Memory ------------------------- Language : Thinking: Representation & Symbols ------------------------- Memory ------------------------- Language
Thinking : Thinking 1. Not before 18-24 mos
2. Representation = Sg stands for sg else
Signals
Symbols. Stands for and detached
Thinking is the creation and manipulation (action on) of symbols.
Concepts are symbols that act as rules for ordering experience.
Memory : Memory
Memory : Memory ‘Recognition’: This is based on signals. (e.g., multiple choice exam). Infant has signal representation and so has recognition memory.
‘Recall’: This is based on symbols (e.g., think of taking an essay exam and having to retrieve the information of facts and events). Infant does not have symbols and so until around 2 years of age does not have recall. That is, infant cannot ‘re-present’ symbolically the event earlier experienced.
Memory : Memory ‘Implicit’ memory is probably related to non-symbolic signal recognition. ‘Explicit’ memory is related to symbolic recall.
‘Procedural’ memory – memories for how to do things-- are related to non-symbolic memory. ‘Declarative’ (Episodic) memory—recollections of facts and events – is related to symbolic recall.
Memory : Memory
The Information processing processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval occur in both types of memories but the specific features of these processes may differ depending upon whether the material is signal like or symbolic
Language & Language Acquisition : Language & Language Acquisition 1. ‘Language’ is defined as a system of symbols that functions to express and communicate meanings.
Language involves symbols and does not necessarily involve speech.
American Sign Language
Phonemes (VerbaL language)
Cooing, gooing, babbling.
Language: Three Language Subsystems: Semantic, Syntax, and Pragmatic : Language: Three Language Subsystems: Semantic, Syntax, and Pragmatic
Slide107 : Language:
Three Language Subsystems:
Semantic, Syntax, and Pragmatic
Semantic : Semantic Semantic’ subsystem: Relation between the symbol and the ‘referent’ (i.e., what the symbol refers to).
The problem: Given that a symbol (in this case a word) might refer to many things, how does it come to refer to a specific thing for the child. This problem = Acquisition of Word Meaning
Syntax : Syntax ‘Syntax’ (Grammar) subsystem: System of rules for how symbols can be related to each other. Or ‘rules by which units of meaning [words] are combined into larger units [sentences]’.
Important around 18-24mos
Pragmatic : Pragmatic The rules that relate symbols to their communicative use
Language Acquisition (Explanation) : Language Acquisition (Explanation) Empiricist Model: Lump of Clay
Nativist Model: Steel Filing Cabinet
Dynamic Systems Model: Living plant
Language Acquisition (Explanation) : Language Acquisition (Explanation) Empiricist Model: Lump of Clay (Nurture) Imitation Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Language Acquisition (Explanation) : Language Acquisition (Explanation) Nativist Model: Computer model (Nature) 1. Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker 2. Idea of ‘Prewired’ Language Acquisition Device & Linguistic Universals. Called ‘Trigger Nativism.’ 3. Evidence from all early rule following including ‘overregularization’ using rules.
Language Acquisition (Explanation) : Language Acquisition (Explanation) Dynamic Systems Model: Living Plant (Coaction, interaction) 1.) Piaget, Slobin, Lois Bloom 2.) ‘Operating principles’ (Slobin) develop out of the earlier co-action of mental organization and environment. Operating principles then at symbolic level function as hypotheses to be tested out in the world. 3. Example of role of environment in language acquisition: ‘Motherese’ or ‘Child-directed speech’ –
Role of the Environment in the Development of Mind: Vygotsky, Kagan’s Discrepancy Hypothesis, Parenting Styles : Role of the Environment in the Development of Mind: Vygotsky, Kagan’s Discrepancy Hypothesis, Parenting Styles What kind of world do we have to present to mind to best facilitate the mind’s constructive activity? As with a plant, we can’t cause its development, we can, however, provide it with the nutrients for it to grow
Vygotsky : Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development
The range of ability between observed level of ability and person’s basic capacity at each stage of development.
Area within which you can offer the child opportunities that he/she can take advantage of for purposes of growth.
e.g., Don’t offer the infant verbal commands (outside ZPD)
Kagan : Kagan Discrepancy Hypothesis’ Also called ‘The Match’, ‘The Dance’
For maximum facilitation of change offer opportunities (stimuli, environmental events) that are moderately different from very familiar events
Parenting Styles : Parenting Styles Authoritarian
Permissive
Authoritative
Neglecting
Authoritarian Parenting (Brick Wall Parent Metaphor) : Authoritarian Parenting (Brick Wall Parent Metaphor) Parents firm, punitive, and unsympathetic. Believe in importance of authority and value obedience. See child as willful & in need of discipline. Detached from child, give little praise. Do not take child’s intentions, wishes, desires, level of mind into consideration. Try to shape behavior & child must adjust to parents standards (Use the Lump of Matter Model)
Child tends to lack social competence, lacks spontaneity & intellectual curiosity.
Permissive Parenting (Jelly Fish Metaphor) : Permissive Parenting (Jelly Fish Metaphor) Fail to provide any structure give child more freedom than child can handle.
Child tends to be relatively immature and have trouble controlling impulses, acting independently.
Authoritative Parenting (Back Bone Metaphor) : Authoritative Parenting (Back Bone Metaphor) Provide structure, firm without being rigid. Rules presented at level of child’s functioning. Bi-directional communication, dialogue, and discussion. They establish firm limits which are explained and discussed, and within these limits they encourage independence.
Child tends to be more self-reliant, more self-controlled and more willing to explore than others
Neglecting Parenting : Neglecting Parenting Maccoby & Martin divide types along dimensions of demandingness and responsiveness. The neglecting parent can neither control nor be responsive to the child.
NEXT LECTURE 6 : NEXT LECTURE 6 Development of Affective (Emotion/Feeling) Dimension of Mind
----------------------------------- Erickson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development
Development of the Affective (Emotion/Feeling) Dimension of Mind : Development of the Affective (Emotion/Feeling) Dimension of Mind Affect = General concept that includes emotion and feelings.
Emotions = Patterns of actions – biological and behavioral
Feelings = Conscious mental reflections on emotions
All meanings have an emotion and feeling associated with them.
Three levels of affect : Three levels of affect Background emotions. E.g., calm-tense, well-being, malaise.
Primary emotions/feelings. E.g., The big six: happy (joy, elation), sad, fear, anger, surprise, disgust.
Secondary emotions/feelings. E.g., Embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride, jealousy.
Development: Two Theories : Development: Two Theories 1. ‘Discrete’ theory: (Nativist Model – Steel Filing Cabinet metaphor). All emotions are present at birth. Human neural system innately prewired to sense various emotions/feelings given appropriate situation in which to express them
Development: Two Theories : Development: Two Theories 2. ‘Differentiation’ theory: (Dynamic Systems Model, Plant metaphor). Neonate begins in global arousal state (congenital emotions). Through action in the world the specific emotions/feelings become differentiated or emerge
Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development : Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development a. Neonate begins with global state that ranges from sleep to aroused. In aroused state can have sensations that range from what we would call from pleasure – pain.
No specific emotions. First emotions to develop are probably background emotions.
Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development : Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development b. Pleasure-positive emotions. Involves completion of an action sequence through adaptive or exploratory actions. Pain-negative emotions. Involves failure to resolve or complete action sequence
Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development : Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development c. Happy – associated with pleasure. Sad, disgust, anger – associated with pain. Primary emotions differentiate quite early in first few months. Here have core consciousness
Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development : Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development d. Other primary emotions require that infant have not merely ecological self, but the self consciousness involved in the volitional self. As said in ‘cognitive development’ section this doesn’t begin until about 9 mos. E.g., “Fear” needs permanent object “S urprise” needs object
Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development : Differentiation: Background & Primary Emotions Development e. Fear as found in ,separation fear or anxiety, and in stranger fear or anxiety,. Do not appear before 7 months
Differentiation: Feelings : Differentiation: Feelings Feelings require a self that can consciously reflect on the emotions. Thus, don’t get this until (see cognitive development section) around 18-24 mos.
Differentiation: Secondary Emotions : Differentiation: Secondary Emotions Embarrassment, Shame, Guilt, Pride all involve a level of extended consciousness where the Self that can think about self’s action and evaluate the action as good or bad.
a. Embarrassment appears around 2 years and pride & shame around 3.
b. Guilt is more complex yet and do not appear until later.
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development A. Originally based on Freud’s theory of the development of the sex motive (wish, desire). Erikson focuses on broader motives and on emotions. Specifically, focuses on development of mental organization termed ‘ego’. Ego is the organization of the actions involved in wishing, willing, feeling, thinking, perceiving.
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development B. Presents discontinuous stages in transformation of ego as they occur through the interaction of action of the person and the social world. For this reason the theory is called a ‘Psychosocial theory’.
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development C. Each stage is described in Freud’s psychosexual language, so have stages oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital plus three that Erikson added. The stages correspond closely to Piaget’s.
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development D. At each stage a new (novel) psychological (mental) process emerges and operates in a tension with its opposite process. Erikson describes this development in terms of his ‘epigenetic principle: “Anything that grows has a ground plan according to which parts (the new processes) arise and have a critical period of growth.”
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development E. The processes-parts are motivational and emotional in character like ‘Trust vs. Mistrust or Suspiciousness’, ‘Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt’, ‘Initiative vs. Guilt’, ‘Industry vs Inferiority.
Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development : Erikson’s Theory of Mental (Affective/Motivational) Development F. These psychological processes have a conscious dimension and thus Erikson refers to each as referring to ‘a sense of’: ‘A sense of Trust’, ‘A sense of Autonomy’, ‘A sense of Initiative’ etc.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 1. Stage of Trust/Mistrust – 0 to 1 1/2
a. Corresponds to Freud’s Oral Stage & Piaget’s Sensori-motor Stage
b. Child after establishing an object world and self world (see Piaget) at around 6 months or so begins a crisis – based on attachment and separation issues -- which results in a sense of trust vs. mistrust.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 2. Stage of Autonomy vs Shame and Self-doubt – 2-4
a. Corresponds closely to Freud’s Anal Stage & Piaget’s Early Preoperational Stage.
b. Child after establishing a world of symbols & thinking comes to be able to evaluate his/her behavior. Crisis surrounds the issue ‘control’ and mastery of self. Can child control own behavior and, hence, have a sense of autonomy, a sense of will, or must the child feel the need to be controlled by others and hence have a sense of shame and self doubt. Shame is a feeling that occurs when symbolic self evaluates the volitional self to be incompetent.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 3. Stage of Initiative vs. Guilt – 4-6 yrs.
a. Corresponds closely to Freud’s Phallic Stage and Piaget’s Later Preoperational Stage.
b. In Stage 2 the child came to understand self as an independent person (autonomy). Now comes to evaluate what kind of person he/she is. Child is active and curious about all things, has initiative.
This initiative must not be broken or will be overly restrained by Guilt. This is the period when the child begins to acquire values and these values as a group are often referred to as “Superego”. Portion of the values comes to constitute ‘conscience’ portion of values come to constitute ideals. If conscience is too rigid, then person is Guilt ridden. Guilt is a feeling that occurs when conscience or superego evaluates the behavior as failing to meet values. : This initiative must not be broken or will be overly restrained by Guilt. This is the period when the child begins to acquire values and these values as a group are often referred to as “Superego”. Portion of the values comes to constitute ‘conscience’ portion of values come to constitute ideals. If conscience is too rigid, then person is Guilt ridden. Guilt is a feeling that occurs when conscience or superego evaluates the behavior as failing to meet values.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 4. Stage of Industry vs. Inferiority. about 6 – 12 or 13 yrs..
a. Corresponds to Freud’s Latency Stage and Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage.
b. Nothing much new here. Initiative continues but termed Industry because it is about working with others.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 5. Stage of Identity vs role confusion – Adolescence.
a. Corresponds to Freud’s Genital Stage and Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage.
b. The child establishes several forms if identity across the course of development. This is a highly reflective form of identity that entails both a self conscious crisis about ‘who am I’ and a commitment to ‘who I am’ This will be discussed further in next lecture.
Erikson’s Stages : Erikson’s Stages 6. Stage of Intimacy vs. Isolation – Young adult
7. Stage of Generativity vs. Stagnation – Middle Adult
8. Stage of Integrity vs. Despair.
a. Wisdom is an important feature of this stage
NEXT LECTURE 7 : NEXT LECTURE 7 Attachment Identity Moral Reasoning Outcomes of the Developing Mind.
Attachment : Attachment Strong and enduring emotional bond between person and primary caregiver.
Attachment : Attachment Old Dependency Story of Relationship. (Empiricist story)
Two independent elements glued together by food.
Story destroyed by wire mother monkey research
Attachment : Attachment C. New Attachment Story of Relationships: The two form an initial unity (a one). The relationship is there from the beginning and must become differentiated and reintegrated. John Bowlby theory
1. Bowlby understands the bond between infant and caregiver as reflection of a mental system (motivational/emotional dimension of mind). Goal of this system is to maintain a closeness or proximity.
2. Recall neonate begins with congenital relational action systems. Bowlby says that crying, sucking, clinging, following, smiling are not just behaviors but are, reflections of an underlying mental system designed to keep caregiver close
Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment : Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment
1.“INITIAL PRE-ATTACHMENT” PHASE. Birth to 2-3 mos. (Early Piaget sensorimotor, before differentiation of self and other).
Infant orients to mother and signals mother (e.g., cries, smiles) but does not yet have a discriminated cognitive figure (permanent object) of mother to keep close. I.e., orients toward environmental mother, or, others, but does not yet have a differentiated sense of mother object.
Responds to anyone in vicinity by orienting, tracking with eyes, grasping, smiling, reaching, & ceasing crying on hearing voice or seeing a face.
Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment : Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment “ATTACHMENT-IN-THE-MAKING” Up to around 6-7 mos. (Corresponds to the ecological self. Core consciousness. Beginning of self-object differentiation.)
Infant begins to discriminate permanent object mother. Infant orients self towards mother and signals to mother to keep mother in proximity.
Infant responds differentially to mother’s voice; stops crying differentially according to who holds him; he cries differentially when mother departs as versus other people; he smiles and vocalizes differentially.
Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment : Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment “CLEAR CUT ATTACHMENT”. Beginning around 7-9 mos. (Around time of volitional self; start of extended consciousness; Piaget’s coordination of scheme; Erikson’s early sense of ‘trust’.)
Infant maintains proximity to discriminated primary care giver figure both by signaling and also by locomotion (moving towards).
Mother comes to be conceived of as an object, independent, persistent in time and space, and moving more or less predictably in a time-space-time continuum. Thus, baby’s goals are regulated in part by expectations of mother’s behavior and whereabouts.
Crawling begins around 9 mos and walking around 13, so then get infant crawling and walking so as to keep mother in contact.
Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment : Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment “GOAL CORRECTED PARTNERSHIP” PHASE. Begins around 4 years & continues to adulthood (Corresponds to beginning of Conceptual Self).
Child comes to understand things from mother’s point of view and, thus, to infer mother’s goals and her plans for achieving them. He then attempts to alter her goals toward a closer fit with his own through techniques of requests or persuasion
Bowlby & Individual Differences : Bowlby & Individual Differences Stages are about transformational change.There is also an individual difference dimension to attachment. That is, while each child goes through each of the above transformations, each child also has a different style (individual variation) of attachment.
a. Secure attachment style
b. Avoidant attachment style
c. Resistant- ambivalent attachment style
Identity : Identity Continuity’ or a ‘sense of sameness’ in the face of various changes.
Example: despite growing older a person understands himself/herself as being the same person.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 1. Physical Identity:
. (Corresponds to emergence of Symbolic Self, 18 mos.). Measured by the Mirror Test (or Rouge Test).
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 2. Symbolic Identity (Corresponds to emergence of Conceptual Self at around 4 years.). Erikson’s idea that child comes to have a sense of autonomy or independence of self. E.g., recognizes the continuity of self as a ‘boy’ or as a ‘girl’. Rrecognizes that label is applied in all sorts of circumstances.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 3. Conceptual Identity. (Corresponds to emergence of Reflective Self 1 at around 6 years). Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage is a necessary condition for having this. Same time as emergence of conscience or superego for Erikson and Freud). Here person recognizes that self will remain the same despite superficial changes of appearance.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 3. Conceptual Identity.
e.g., Gender constancy (or Gender Identity Constancy). At age 4 child recognizes that label ‘boy’ or ‘girl’ applies to him or her, so has a kind of gender identity. However, it is not until the present stage that child comes to recognize that he/she will remain a boy/girl despite changes in hairstyle, clothing style.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
(Reflective Self II. Piaget’s formal operations are a necessary condition for this. Generally this identity is achieved in late adolescence. It corresponds directly to Erikson’s Stage of Identity vs. role confusion)
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
Here the adolescent asks the question “But, who am I.” And ultimately – hopefully – answers the question. Issue of ‘who am I’ cuts across many areas including political grounds (republican/democrat), religious grounds (believer/non believer), social grounds (environmentalist?), moral grounds (pro choice/ pro life), occupational grounds.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
Four Stages to achieving this identity. Stages determined by whether person has experienced a ‘crisis’ concerning the ‘ who am I?’ question and whether person has made a positive ‘commitment’ to the answer to this question
CRISIS COMMITMENT
Achievement Yes Yes
Moratorium Yes No
Foreclosure No Yes
Diffuse No No.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
CRISIS COMMITMENT
Diffuse No No.
Diffuse: Person who refuses to feel the tension and refuses to commit self to political, religious, moral, occupational issues. The utter skeptic, ‘nothing matters.’
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
CRISIS COMMITMENT
Forclose No Yes
Foreclose: Rather than experiencing the crisis and following a process of working through the tensions or pulls of one position vs. another, makes a rapid commitment. The ‘if it was good enough for dad, it’s good enough for me’ person.
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
CRISIS COMMITMENT
Moratorium Yes No
Moratorium: Person who is currently working through the process of constructing his/her identity
Identity: Several Forms : Identity: Several Forms 4. Person or reflected identity
CRISIS COMMITMENT
Achievement Yes Yes
Achievement: Person who has worked through the process and has established a relatively secure sense of identity
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) A. Reasoning about values.
B. Moral reasoning is different from moral behavior. One may have high moral values but do immoral acts,
C. Freud’s theory about the development of conscience (superego) and Erikson’s Stage of Initiative vs. Guilt is about the development of moral thinking. (Both based on guilt issues)
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) D. Kohlberg’s theory: Development of moral reasoning
Based on Piaget’s theory of the development of mind. Piaget has stages of mind; Kohlberg uses these stages – starting in the preoperational period (around 4) -- to describe how the child develops thinking in one specific area, i.e., the area of values.
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) D. Kohlberg’s theory:
Three major Levels with Two Stages within each Level
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) D. Kohlberg’s theory:
1. Preconventional Level: Corresponds to 2nd half Piaget’s Preoperational Stage. Here child tends to judge acts as moral or immoral, not in terms of general values, but in terms of the consequences of these acts. Eg, stealing might be judged immoral ‘because you will be punished.’ Note this thinking is quite close to ‘practical action’, which is low level of thought.
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) D. Kohlberg’s theory:
2. Conventional Level: Corresponds to Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage. Child has values and thinks logically about them but the values tend to be quite concrete/not universal. Example, stealing might be judged immoral ‘because it would hurt the person you stole from’, or ‘because that wouldn’t be following the rules.’
Moral Reasoning (Thinking) : Moral Reasoning (Thinking) D. Kohlberg’s theory:
2. Post Conventional Level: Corresponds to Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage. Here adolescent, especially late adolescent, begins to formulate reasons in terms of broad, abstract, universal principles. Example stealing might be judged immoral because ‘it works against society’s welfare’ or perhaps an act of stealing would be judged moral, ‘because that act saved a life and life is more valuable than material property
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