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In ancient times, people sought to organize the world around them into fundamental elements Aristotle: Earth Air Fire WaterWhat Else Did They Think?: What Else Did They Think? “By Convention there is color, by convention sweetness, by convention bitterness, but in reality there are atoms and space.” -Democritus (c. 585 BC) Atom = Mushy Ball (c. 1900)Where We Were ~100 Years Ago…: Where We Were ~100 Years Ago…The “elementary particles” in the 19th century:: The Atoms of the 92 Elements 1. Hydrogen Mass MH 1.7 x 10-24 g 2. Helium 3. Lithium ............. ............. 92. Uranium Mass 238 MH increasing mass Estimate of a typical atomic radius Number of atoms /cm3: Atomic volume: Packing fraction: f 0.52 — 0.74 NA 6 x 1023 mol-1 (Avogadro costant) A: molar mass : density Example: Iron (A = 55.8 g; = 7.87 g cm-3) R = (1.1 — 1.3) x 10-8 cm The “elementary particles” in the 19th century:1894 – 1897: Discovery of the electron: Study of “cathode rays”: electric current in tubes at very low gas pressure (“glow discharge”) Measurement of the electron mass: me MH/1836 “Could anything at first sight seem more impractical than a body which is so small that its mass is an insignificant fraction of the mass of an atom of hydrogen?” (J.J. Thomson) Thomson’s atomic model: Electrically charged sphere Radius ~ 10-8 cm Positive electric charge Electrons with negative electric charge embedded in the sphere 1894 – 1897: Discovery of the electron J.J. Thomson ATOMS ARE NOT ELEMENTARY 1895-6: Discovery of natural radioactivity: 1895-6: Discovery of natural radioactivity (Roentgen: X-rays; Henri Becquerel: penetrating) Henri Becquerel 1909 - 13: Rutherford’s scattering experiments Discovery of the atomic nucleus Ernest Rutherford - particles : nuclei of Helium atoms spontaneously emitted by heavy radioactive isotopes Typical – particle velocity 0.05 c (c : speed of light) Science not always orderly: Roentgen (Nobel Prize) x-rays came from atomic emissions, but 16 years later could understand orbit structure of atoms: Bohr: Nobel Prize, atomic model Becquerel thought light-exposed flourescence gave X-rays, but then saw it in K-U-sulfate. 1/2 century before we knew that nucleus breaks apart!Slide8: Rutherford’s Scattering ExptSlide9: Expectations for – atom scattering – atom scattering at low energies is dominated by Coulomb interaction – particles with impact parameter = b “see” only electric charge within sphere of radius = b (Gauss theorem for forces proportional to r-2 ) For Thomson’s atomic model the electric charge “seen” by the – particle is zero, independent of impact parameter no significant scattering at large angles is expectedRutherford’s observation:: Nuclear radius 10-13 cm 10-5 x atomic radius Mass of the nucleus mass of the atom (to a fraction of 1‰ ) Rutherford’s observation: significant scattering of – particles at large angles, consistent with scattering expected for a sphere of radius few x 10-13 cm and electric charge = Ze, with Z = 79 (atomic number of gold) and e = |charge of the electron| an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons Two questions:: Two questions: Why did Rutherford need – particles to discover the atomic nucleus? Why do we need huge accelerators to study particle physics today? Answer to both questions from basic principles of Quantum Mechanics Observation of very small objects using visible lightSlide12: Aperture diameter: D = 20 m Focal length: 20 cm y (mm) x (mm) Presence of opaque disk is detectable Observation of light diffraction, interpreted as evidence that light consists of waves since the end of the 17th century Angular aperture of the first circle (before focusing): = 1.22 / DSlide13: diameter = 4 m diameter = 2 m diameter = 1 m no opaque disk Opaque disk of variable diameter The presence of the opaque disk in the centre is detectable if its diameter is larger than the wavelength of the light The RESOLVING POWER of the observation depends on the wavelength Visible light: not enough resolution to see objects smaller than 0.2 – 0.3 mOpaque screen with two circular apertures: Opaque screen with two circular apertures x (mm) y (mm) Image obtained by shutting one aperture alternatively for 50% of the exposure time Image obtained with both apertures open simultaneously x (mm) y (mm)Photoelectric effect:: Observation of a threshold effect as a function of the frequency of the light impinging onto the electrode at negative voltage (cathode): Frequency < 0 : electric current = zero, independent of luminous flux; Frequency > 0 : current > 0, proportional to luminous flux Photoelectric effect: evidence that light consists of particles INTERPRETATION (A. Einstein): Albert Einstein Threshold energy E0 = h0: the energy needed to extract an electron from an atom (depends on the cathode material) Light consists of particles (“photons”) Photon energy proportional to frequency: Planck: energy quanta (1900) Einstein: photo-electric effectSlide16: Repeat the experiment with two circular apertures using a very weak light source Luminous flux = 1 photon /second (detectable using modern, commercially available photomultiplier tubes) Need very long exposure time Question: which aperture will photons choose? Answer: diffraction pattern corresponds to both apertures simultaneously open, independent of luminous flux Photons have both particle and wave properties simultaneously It is impossible to know which aperture the photon traversed The photon can be described as a coherent superposition of two states1924: De Broglie’s principle: 1924: De Broglie’s principle Louis de Broglie Not only light, but also matter particles possess both the properties of waves and particles Relation between wavelength and momentum: h: Planck constant p = m v : particle momentum Hypothesis soon confirmed by the observation of diffraction pattern in the scattering of electrons from crystals, confirming the wave behaviour of electrons (Davisson and Germer, 1927) Wavelength of the – particles used by Rutherford in the discovery of the atomic nucleus: 0.05 c ~ resolving power of Rutherford’s experiment -particle massTypical tools to study objects of very small dimensions: Typical tools to study objects of very small dimensionsUnits in particle physics: Units in particle physics Energy 1 electron-Volt (eV): the energy of a particle with electric charge = |e|, initially at rest, after acceleration by a difference of electrostatic potential = 1 Volt (e = 1.60 x 10 -19 C) 1 eV = 1.60 x 10 -19 J Multiples: 1 keV = 103 eV ; 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV; 1 TeV = 1012 eV Energy of a proton in the LHC (in the year 2007): 7 TeV = 1.12 x 10 -6 J (the same energy of a body of mass = 1 mg moving at speed = 1.5 m /s) Energy and momentum for relativistic particles: Energy and momentum for relativistic particles (velocity v comparable to c) Speed of light in vacuum c = 2.99792 x 108 m / s Total energy: Expansion in powers of (v/c): Momentum: Slide21: E2 – p2c2 = (m0c2) 2 “relativistic invariant” (same value in all reference frames) Special case: the photon (v = c in vacuum) E = h = h / p E / p = = c (in vacuum) E2 – p2c2 = 0 photon rest mass mg = 0 Momentum units: eV/c (or MeV/c, GeV/c, ...) Mass units: eV/c2 (or MeV/c2, GeV/c2, ...) Numerical example: electron with v = 0. 99 c Rest mass: me = 0.511 MeV/c2 (often called “Lorentz factor”) Total energy: E = me c2 = 7.089 x 0.511 = 3.62 MeV Momentum: p = (v / c) x (E / c) = 0.99 x 3.62 = 3.58 MeV/cFirst (wrong) ideas about nuclear structure: First (wrong) ideas about nuclear structure (before 1932) Observations Mass values of light nuclei multiples of proton mass (to few %) (proton nucleus of the hydrogen atom) decay: spontaneous emission of electrons by some radioactive nuclei Hypothesis: the atomic nucleus is a system of protons and electrons strongly bound together Nucleus of the atom with atomic number Z and mass number A: a bound system of A protons and (A – Z) electrons Total electric charge of the nucleus = [A – (A – Z)]e = Z e Problem with this model: the “Nitrogen anomaly” Spin of the Nitrogen nucleus = 1 Spin: intrinsic angular momentum of a particle (or system of particles) In Quantum Mechanics only integer or half-integer multiples of ħ (h / 2) are possible: integer values for orbital angular momentum (e.g., for the motion of atomic electrons around the nucleus) both integer and half-integer values for spinDISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON: Electron, proton spin = ½ħ (measured) Nitrogen nucleus (A = 14, Z = 7): 14 protons + 7 electrons = 21 spin ½ particles TOTAL SPIN MUST HAVE HALF-INTEGER VALUE Measured spin = 1 (from hyperfine splitting of atomic spectral lines) DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON (Chadwick, 1932) Neutron: a particle with mass proton mass but with zero electric charge Solution to the nuclear structure problem: Nucleus with atomic number Z and mass number A: a bound system of Z protons and (A – Z) neutrons James Chadwick Nitrogen anomaly: no problem if neutron spin = ½ħ Nitrogen nucleus (A = 14, Z = 7): 7 protons, 7 neutrons = 14 spin ½ particles total spin has integer value Neutron source in Chadwick’s experiments: a 210Po radioactive source (5 MeV – particles ) mixed with Beryllium powder emission of electrically neutral radiation capable of traversing several centimetres of Pb: 4He2 + 9Be4 12C6 + neutron - particle Rutherford was leading Chadwick. Rutherford guessed that protons were carrying the charge of the nucleus after a nitrogen atom expelled hydrogen on being hit by alphas. Chadwick discovered the actual neutron in 1932. The Curies had seen it but misinterpreted it as x-rays… Saw electrically neutral radiation from alphas on beryllium. Chadwick added paraffin, which ejected protons, too heavy to be removed by x-rays. He guessed they were neutrons: same weight as proton, and what Rutherford had hypothesized.Basic principles of particle detection: Basic principles of particle detection Passage of charged particles through matter Interaction with atomic electrons ionization (neutral atom ion+ + free electron) excitation of atomic energy levels (de-excitation photon emission) proportional to (electric charge)2 of incident particle Mean energy loss rate – dE /dx for a given material, function only of incident particle velocity typical value at minimum: -dE /dx = 1 – 2 MeV /(g cm-2) NOTE: traversed thickness (dx) is given in g /cm2 to be independent of material density (for variable density materials, such as gases) – multiply dE /dx by density (g/cm3) to obtain dE /dx in MeV/cmResidual range: Passage of neutral particles through matter: no interaction with atomic electrons detection possible only in case of collisions producing charged particles Residual range Residual range of a charged particle with initial energy E0 losing energy only by ionization and atomic excitation: M: particle rest mass v: initial velocity the measurement of R for a particle of known rest mass M is a measurement of the initial velocity Neutron discovery: observation and measurement of nuclear recoils in an “expansion chamber” filled with Nitrogen at atmospheric pressureSlide26: Assume that incident neutral radiation consists of particles of mass m moving with velocities v < Vmax Determine max. velocity of recoil protons (Up) and Nitrogen nuclei (UN) from max. observed range From measured ratio Up / UN and known values of mp, mN determine neutron mass: m mn mp Present mass values : mp = 938.272 MeV/c2; mn = 939.565 MeV/c2 Pauli’s exclusion principle: Pauli’s exclusion principle In Quantum Mechanics the electron orbits around the nucleus are “quantized”: only some specific orbits (characterized by integer quantum numbers) are possible. Example: allowed orbit radii and energies for the Hydrogen atom In atoms with Z > 2 only two electrons are found in the innermost orbit – WHY? ANSWER (Pauli, 1925): two electrons (spin = ½) can never be in the same physical state Wolfgang Pauli Pauli’s exclusion principle applies to all particles with half-integer spin (collectively named Fermions)ANTIMATTER: ANTIMATTER Discovered “theoretically” by P.A.M. Dirac (1928) Dirac’s equation: a relativistic wave equation for the electron Two surprising results: Motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field: presence of a term describing (for slow electrons) the potential energy of a magnetic dipole moment in a magnetic field existence of an intrinsic electron magnetic dipole moment opposite to spin For each solution of Dirac’s equation with electron energy E > 0 there is another solution with E < 0 What is the physical meaning of these “negative energy” solutions ?Slide29: Dirac’s assumptions: nearly all electron negative-energy states are occupied and are not observable. electron transitions from a positive-energy to an occupied negative-energy state are forbidden by Pauli’s exclusion principle. electron transitions from a positive-energy state to an empty negative-energy state are allowed electron disappearance. To conserve electric charge, a positive electron (positron) must disappear e+e– annihilation. electron transitions from a negative-energy state to an empty positive-energy state are also allowed electron appearance. To conserve electric charge, a positron must appear creation of an e+e– pair. empty electron negative–energy states describe positive energy states of the positron Dirac’s perfect vacuum: a region where all positive-energy states are empty and all negative-energy states are full. Positron magnetic dipole moment = e but oriented parallel to positron spinExperimental confirmation of antimatter: Experimental confirmation of antimatter (C.D. Anderson, 1932) Detector: a Wilson cloud – chamber (visual detector based on a gas volume containing vapour close to saturation) in a magnetic field, exposed to cosmic rays Measure particle momentum and sign of electric charge from magnetic curvature Lorentz force Circle radius for electric charge |e|: NOTE: impossible to distinguish between positively and negatively charged particles going in opposite directions need an independent determination of the particle direction of motionSlide31: First experimental observation of a positronNeutrinos: Neutrinos A puzzle in – decay: the continuous electron energy spectrum If – decay is (A, Z) (A, Z+1) + e–, then the emitted electron is mono-energetic: electron total energy E = [M(A, Z) – M(A, Z+1)]c2 (neglecting the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus ½p2/M(A,Z+1) << E) Several solutions to the puzzle proposed before the 1930’s (all wrong), including violation of energy conservation in – decaySlide33: December 1930: public letter sent by W. Pauli to a physics meeting in Tübingen NOTES Pauli’s neutron is a light particle not the neutron that will be discovered by Chadwick one year later As everybody else at that time, Pauli believed that if radioactive nuclei emit particles, these particles must exist in the nuclei before emission Theory of -decay: Theory of -decay (E. Fermi, 1932-33) Fermi’s theory: a point interaction among four spin ½ particles, using the mathematical formalism of creation and annihilation operators invented by Jordan particles emitted in – decay need not exist before emission – they are “created” at the instant of decay Prediction of – decay rates and electron energy spectra as a function of only one parameter: Fermi coupling constant GF (determined from experiments) Energy spectrum dependence on neutrino mass (from Fermi’s original article, published in German on Zeitschrift für Physik, following rejection of the English version by Nature) Measurable distortions for > 0 near the end-point (E0 : max. allowed electron energy)Neutrino detection: Neutrino detection Interaction mean free path: = 1 / n Interaction probability for finite target thickness T = 1 – exp(–T / ) Interaction probability T / very small (~10–18 per metre H2O) need very intense sources for antineutrino detection Nuclear reactors:: Nuclear reactors: very intense antineutrino sources Average fission: n + 235U92 (A1, Z) + (A2, 92 – Z) + 2.5 free neutrons + 200 MeV nuclei with large neutron excess a chain of decays with very short lifetimes: (until a stable or long lifetime nucleus is reached) First neutrino detection: First neutrino detection (Reines, Cowan 1953) detect 0.5 MeV -rays from e+e– (t = 0) E = 0.5 MeV neutron “thermalization” followed by capture in Cd nuclei emission of delayed -rays (average delay ~30 s) Event rate at the Savannah River nuclear power plant: 3.0 0.2 events / hour (after subracting event rate measured with reactor OFF ) in agreement with expectationsCOSMIC RAYS: COSMIC RAYS Discovered by V.F. Hess in the 1910’s by the observation of the increase of radioactivity with altitude during a balloon flight Until the late 1940’s, the only existing source of high-energy particles Composition of cosmic rays at sea level – two main components Electromagnetic “showers”, consisting of many e and -rays, mainly originating from: + nucleus e+e– + nucleus (pair production/“conversion”) e + nucleus e + + nucleus (“bremsstrahlung”) The typical mean free path for these processes (“radiation length”, x0 ) depends on Z. For Pb (Z = 82) x0 = 0.56 cm Thickness of the atmosphere 27 x0 Muons ( ) capable of traversing as much as 1 m of Pb without interacting; tracks observed in cloud chambers in the 1930’s. Determination of the mass by simultaneous measurement of momentum p = mv(1 – v2/c2)-½ (track curvature in magnetic field) and velocity v (ionization): mm = 105.66 MeV/c2 207 meMuon decay: Muon decay Muon lifetime at rest: = 2.197 x 10 - 6 s 2.197 s Muon decay mean free path in flight: muons can reach the Earth surface after a path 10 km because the decay mean free path is stretched by the relativistic time expansion Muon spin = ½ Particle interactions: Particle interactions (as known until the mid 1960’s) Gravitational interaction (all particles) Totally negligible in particle physics Example: static force between electron and proton at distance D In order of increasing strength: Weak interaction (all particles except photons) Responsible for decay and for slow nuclear fusion reactions in the star core Example: in the core of the Sun (T = 15.6 x 106 ºK) 4p 4He + 2e+ + 2 Solar neutrino emission rate ~ 1.84 x 103 8 neutrinos / s Flux of solar neutrinos on Earth ~ 6.4 x 1010 neutrinos cm-2 s –1 Very small interaction radius Rint (max. distance at which two particles interact) (Rint = 0 in the original formulation of Fermi’s theory) Electromagnetic interaction (all charged particles) Responsible for chemical reactions, light emission from atoms, etc. Infinite interaction radius (example: the interaction between electrons in transmitting and receiving antennas)Slide41: Strong interaction ( neutron, proton, .... NOT THE ELECTRON ! ) Responsible for keeping protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus Independent of electric charge Interaction radius Rint 10 –13 cm In Relativistic Quantum Mechanics static fields of forces DO NOT EXIST ; the interaction between two particles is “transmitted” by intermediate particles acting as “interaction carriers” Example: electron – proton scattering (an effect of the electromagnetic interaction) is described as a two-step process : 1) incident electron scattered electron + photon 2) photon + incident proton scattered proton The photon ( ) is the carrier of the electromagnetic interaction “Mass” of the intermediate photon: Q2 E2 – p2 c2 = – 2 p2 c2 ( 1 – cos ) The photon is in a VIRTUAL state because for real photons E2 – p2 c2 = 0 (the mass of real photons is ZERO ) – virtual photons can only exist for a very short time interval thanks to the “Uncertainty Principle”The Uncertainty Principle: The Uncertainty Principle Werner Heisenberg CLASSICAL MECHANICS Position and momentum of a particle can be measured independently and simultaneously with arbitrary precision QUANTUM MECHANICS Measurement perturbs the particle state position and momentum measurements are correlated: (also for y and z components) Similar correlation for energy and time measurements: Quantum Mechanics allows a violation of energy conservation by an amount E for a short time t ħ / E 1937: Theory of nuclear forces: 1937: Theory of nuclear forces (H. Yukawa) Existence of a new light particle (“meson”) as the carrier of nuclear forces (140GeV) Relation between interaction radius and meson mass m: Yukawa’s meson initially identified with the muon – in this case – stopping in matter should be immediately absorbed by nuclei nuclear breakup (not true for stopping + because of Coulomb repulsion - + never come close enough to nuclei, while – form “muonic” atoms) Experiment of Conversi, Pancini, Piccioni (Rome, 1945): study of – stopping in matter using – magnetic selection in the cosmic rays In light material (Z 10) the decays mainly to electron (just as +) In heavier material, the disappears partly by decaying to electron, and partly by nuclear capture (process later understood as + p n + ). However, the rate of nuclear captures is consistent with the weak interaction. Hideki Yukawa1947: Discovery of the - meson: 1947: Discovery of the - meson (the “real” Yukawa particle) C.F. Powell: Observation of the + + e+ decay chain in nuclear emulsion exposed to cosmic rays at high altitudes Nuclear emulsion: a detector sensitive to ionization with ~1 m space resolution (AgBr microcrystals suspended in gelatin) In all events the muon has a fixed kinetic energy (4.1 MeV, corresponding to a range of ~ 600 m in nuclear emulsion) two-body decay – at rest undergoes nuclear capture, as expected for the Yukawa particle A neutral meson (°) also exists: m (°) = 134. 98 MeV /c2 Decay: ° + , mean life = 8.4 x 10-17 s mesons are the most copiously produced particles in proton – proton and proton – nucleus collisions at high energiesSlide45: New Types of Matter! Fermilab: Bubble Chamber Photo More and More Mystery particlesCONSERVED QUANTUM NUMBERS: CONSERVED QUANTUM NUMBERS Why is the free proton stable? Possible proton decay modes (allowed by all known conservation laws: energy – momentum, electric charge, angular momentum): p ° + e+ p ° + + p + + . . . . . No proton decay ever observed – the proton is STABLE Limit on the proton mean life: p > 1.6 x 1025 years Invent a new quantum number : “Baryonic Number” B B = 1 for proton, neutron B = -1 for antiproton, antineutron B = 0 for e± , ± , neutrinos, mesons, photons Require conservation of baryonic number in all particle processes: ( i : initial state particle ; f : final state particle)Strangeness: Strangeness Late 1940’s: discovery of a variety of heavier mesons (K – mesons) and baryons (“hyperons”) – studied in detail in the 1950’s at the new high-energy proton synchrotrons (the 3 GeV “cosmotron” at the Brookhaven National Lab and the 6 GeV Bevatron at Berkeley) Examples of mass values Mesons (spin = 0): m(K±) = 493.68 MeV/c2 ; m(K°) = 497.67 MeV/c2 Hyperons (spin = ½): m() = 1115.7 MeV/c2 ; m(±) = 1189.4 MeV/c2 m(°) = 1314.8 MeV/c2; m( – ) = 1321.3 MeV/c2 Properties Abundant production in proton – nucleus , – nucleus collisions Production cross-section typical of strong interactions ( > 10-27 cm2) Production in pairs (example: – + p K° + ; K– + p – + K+ ) Decaying to lighter particles with mean life values 10–8 – 10–10 s (as expected for a weak decay) Examples of decay modes K± ± ° ; K± ± +– ; K± ± ° ° ; K° +– ; K° ° ° ; . . . p – ; n ° ; + p ° ; + n + ; + n – ; . . . – – ; ° °Slide48: Invention of a new, additive quantum number “Strangeness” (S) (Gell-Mann, Nakano, Nishijima, 1953) conserved in strong interaction processes: not conserved in weak decays: S = +1: K+, K° ; S = –1: , ±, ° ; S = –2 : °, – ; S = 0 : all other particles (and opposite strangeness –S for the corresponding antiparticles)Antiproton discovery (1955): Antiproton discovery (1955) Threshold energy for antiproton ( p ) production in proton – proton collisions Baryon number conservation simultaneous production of p and p (or p and n) Example: Threshold energy ~ 6 GeV build a beam line for 1.19 GeV/c momentum select negatively charged particles (mostly – ) reject fast – by Čerenkov effect: light emission in transparent medium if particle velocity v > c / n (n: refraction index) – antiprotons have v < c / n no Čerenkov light measure time of flight between counters S1 and S2 (12 m path): 40 ns for – , 51 ns for antiprotons For fixed momentum, time of flight gives particle velocity, hence particle massSlide50: Example of antiproton annihilation at rest in a liquid hydrogen bubble chamberDISCRETE SYMMETRIES: DISCRETE SYMMETRIES PARITY: the reversal of all three axes in a reference frame P transformation equivalent to a mirror reflection PARITY INVARIANCE: All physics laws are invariant with respect to a P transformation; For any given physical system, the mirror-symmetric system is equally probable; In particle physics Nature does not know the difference between Right and Left. Slide52: Vector transformation under P (all three components change sign) (the three components do not change) A puzzle in the early 1950’s : the decays K+ + ° and K+ 3 (+ + – and + ° ° ) A system of two – mesons and a system of three – mesons, both in a state of total angular momentum = 0, have OPPOSITE PARITIESSlide53: 1956: Suggestion (by T.D. Lee and C.N. Yang) Weak interactions are NOT INVARIANT under Parity Parity invariance requires that the two states must be produced with equal probabilities the emitted + is not polarized Experiments find that the + has full polarization opposite to the momentum direction STATE A DOES NOT EXIST MAXIMAL VIOLATION OF PARITY INVARIANCECHARGE CONJUGATION ( C ): CHARGE CONJUGATION ( C ) Particle antiparticle transformation Experiments find that state B does not exist A BSlide55: Method to measure the m+ polarization (R.L. Garwin, 1957) Electron angular distribution from + decay at rest : dN / d = 1 + cos : angle between electron direction and + spin sm cos sm · pe (term violating P invariance) Spin precession: cos cos (t + ) modulation of the decay electron time distribution Experimental results: = - 1 / 3 evidence for P violation in + decay Simultaneous measurement of the + magnetic moment: Another neutrino: Another neutrino A possible solution: existence of a new, conserved “muonic” quantum number distinguishing muons from electrons If e , interactions produce – and not e– (example: + n – + p)Slide57: 1962: nm discovery at the Brookhaven AGS (a 30 GeV proton synchrotron running at 17 GeV for the neutrino experiment) 13. 5 m iron shielding (enough to stop 17 GeV muons) Neutrino energy spectrum known from , K production and , K decay kinematicsTHE “STATIC” QUARK MODEL: THE “STATIC” QUARK MODEL Late 1950’s – early 1960’s: discovery of many strongly interacting particles at the high energy proton accelerators (Berkeley Bevatron, BNL AGS, CERN PS), all with very short mean life times (10–20 – 10–23 s, typical of strong decays) catalog of > 100 strongly interacting particles (collectively named “hadrons”) ARE HADRONS ELEMENTARY PARTICLES?Prediction and discovery of the – particle: Prediction and discovery of the – particle A success of the static quark model The “decuplet” of spin baryonsSlide62: The first – event (observed in the 2 m liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at BNL using a 5 GeV/c K– beam from the 30 GeV AGS)“DYNAMIC” EVIDENCE FOR QUARKS: “DYNAMIC” EVIDENCE FOR QUARKS Electron – proton scattering using a 20 GeV electron beam from the Stanford two – mile Linear Accelerator (1968 – 69). The modern version of Rutherford’s original experiment: resolving power wavelength associated with 20 GeV electron 10-15 cm Three magnetic spectrometers to detect the scattered electron: 20 GeV spectrometer (to study elastic scattering e– + p e– + p) 8 GeV spectrometer (to study inelastic scattering e– + p e– + hadrons) 1.6 GeV spectrometer (to study extremely inelastic collisions)Slide65: Electron elastic scattering from a point-like charge |e| at high energies: differential cross-section in the collision centre-of-mass (Mott’s formula) Scattering from an extended charge distribution: multiply sM by a “form factor”: |Q| = ħ / D : mass of the exchanged virtual photon D: linear size of target region contributing to scattering Increasing |Q| decreasing target electric charge F (|Q2| ) = 1 for a point-like particle the proton is not a point-like particle Inelastic electron – proton collisions: Inelastic electron – proton collisions For deeply inelastic collisions, the cross-section depends only weakly on |Q2| , suggesting a collision with a POINT-LIKE objectInterpretation of deep inelastic e - p collisions: Interpretation of deep inelastic e - p collisions Deep inelastic electron – proton collisions are elastic collisions with point-like, electrically charged, spin ½ constituents of the proton carrying a fraction x of the incident proton momentum Each constituent type is described by its electric charge ei (units of | e |) and by its x distribution (dNi /dx) (“structure function”) If these constituents are the u and d quarks, then deep inelastic e – p collisions provide information on a particular combination of structure functions: (Neutrino interactions do not depend on electric charge)PHYSICS WITH e+e– COLLIDERS: PHYSICS WITH e+e– COLLIDERS Two beams circulating in opposite directions in the same magnetic ring and colliding head-on Virtual photon energy – momentum : E = 2E , p = 0 Q2 = E2 – p2c 2 = 4E 2Slide69: Experimental results from the Stanford e+e– collider SPEAR (1974 –75): For Q < 3. 6 GeV R 2. If each quark exists in three different states, R 2 is consistent with 3 x ( 2 / 3). This would solve the – problem. Between 3 and 4.5 GeV, the peaks and structures are due to the production of quark-antiquark bound states and resonances of a fourth quark (“charm”, c) of electric charge +2/3 Above 4.6 GeV R 4.3. Expect R 2 (from u, d, s) + 3 x (4 / 9) = 3.3 from the addition of the c quark alone. So the data suggest pair production of an additional elementary spin ½ particle with electric charge = 1 (later identified as the t – lepton (no strong interaction) with mass 1777 MeV/c2 ).Slide70: Final state : an electron – muon pair + missing energy Evidence for production of pairs of heavy leptons ±THE MODERN THEORY OF STRONG INTERACTIONS: : THE MODERN THEORY OF STRONG INTERACTIONS: the interactions between quarks based on “Colour Symmetry” Quantum ChromoDynamics (QCD) formulated in the early 1970’s Each quark exists in three states of a new quantum number named “colour” Particles with colour interact strongly through the exchange of spin 1 particles named “gluons”, in analogy with electrically charged particles interacting electromagnetically through the exchange of spin 1 photons A MAJOR DIFFERENCE WITH THE ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION Electric charge: positive or negative Photons have no electric charge and there is no direct photon-photon interaction Colour: three varieties Mathematical consequence of colour symmetry: the existence of eight gluons with eight variety of colours, with direct gluon – gluon interaction The observed hadrons (baryons, mesons ) are colourless combinations of coloured quarks and gluons The strong interactions between baryons, mesons is an “apparent” interaction between colourless objects, in analogy with the apparent electromagnetic interaction between electrically neutral atomsSlide72: Free quarks, gluons have never been observed experimentally; only indirect evidence from the study of hadrons – WHY? CONFINEMENT: coloured particles are confined within colourless hadrons because of the behaviour of the colour forces at large distances The attractive force between coloured particles increases with distance increase of potential energy production of quark – antiquark pairs which neutralize colour formation of colourless hadrons (hadronization) CONFINEMENT, HADRONIZATION: properties deduced from observation. So far, the properties of colour forces at large distance have no precise mathematical formulation in QCD.Slide73: e+ + e– hadrons A typical event at Q = 2E = 35 GeV: reconstructed charged particle tracks1962-66: Formulation of a Unified Electroweak Theory: 1962-66: Formulation of a Unified Electroweak Theory (Glashow, Salam, Weinberg) 4 intermediate spin 1 interaction carriers (“bosons”): the photon (g) responsible for all electromagnetic processes Z responsible for weak processes with no electric charge transfer (Neutral Current processes) PROCESSES NEVER OBSERVED BEFORE Require neutrino beams to search for these processes, to remove the much larger electromagnetic effects expected with charged particle beams three weak, heavy bosons W+ W– Z W± responsible for processes with electric charge transfer = ±1 (Charged Current processes)Slide75: First observation of Neutral Current processes in the heavy liquid bubble chamber Gargamelle at the CERN PS (1973) Example of + p (n) + hadrons (inelastic interaction) ( beam from + decay in flight) Slide76: Measured rates of Neutral Current events estimate of the W and Z masses (not very accurately, because of the small number of events): MW 70 – 90 GeV/c2 ; MZ 80 – 100 GeV/c2 too high to be produced at any accelerator in operation in the 1970’s 1975: Proposal to transform the new 450 GeV CERN proton synchrotron (SPS) into a proton – antiproton collider (C. Rubbia) Beam energy necessary to achieve the same collision energy on a proton at rest : E = 210 TeV Production of W and Z by quark – antiquark annihilation:UA1 and UA2 experiments (1981 – 1990): UA1 and UA2 experiments (1981 – 1990) Search for W± e± + (UA1, UA2) ; W± ± + (UA1) Z e+e– (UA1, UA2) ; Z + – (UA1) UA2: non-magnetic, calorimetric detector with inner trackerSlide78: One of the first W e + events in UA1 48 GeV electron identified by surrounding calorimeters Slide79: UA2 final results Events containing two high-energy electrons: Distributions of the “invariant mass” Mee (for Z e+e– Mee = MZ) Events containing a single electron with large transverse momentum (momentum component perpendicular to the beam axis) and large missing transverse momentum (apparent violation of momentum conservation due to the escaping neutrino from W e decay) mT (“transverse mass”): invariant mass of the electron – neutrino pair calculated from the transverse components only MW is determined from a fit to the mT distribution: MW = 80.35 ± 0.37 GeV/c2e+e– colliders at higher energies: e+e– colliders at higher energiesCONCLUSIONS: CONCLUSIONS The elementary particles today: 3 x 6 = 18 quarks + 6 leptons = 24 fermions (constituents of matter) + 24 antiparticles 48 elementary particles consistent with point-like dimensions within the resolving power of present instrumentation ( ~ 10-16 cm) 12 force carriers (, W±, Z, 8 gluons) + the Higgs spin 0 particle (NOT YET DISCOVERED) responsible for generating the masses of all particles You do not have the permission to view this presentation. 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Gostaria de receber a fonte no seguinte email: cpj2@uol.com.br Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close By: m_dwiner (43 month(s) ago) I am a physics teacher. This ppt' file is realy good. would you mind giving me the source to m_dwiner@yahoo.co.id Saving..... Post Reply Close Saving..... Edit Comment Close Premium member Presentation Transcript The History of Particles: Progression of Discoveries: The History of Particles: Progression of Discoveries Prof. Robin D. Erbacher University of California, Davis Based on L. DiLella Lectures -- CERN Summer School 2004 Reading: D.H. Perkins, Introduction to High Energy Physics F.E. Close, The cosmic onion Review of Concepts, Progress, and Achievement from atoms to quarksWhat is the World Made Of?: What is the World Made Of? In ancient times, people sought to organize the world around them into fundamental elements Aristotle: Earth Air Fire WaterWhat Else Did They Think?: What Else Did They Think? “By Convention there is color, by convention sweetness, by convention bitterness, but in reality there are atoms and space.” -Democritus (c. 585 BC) Atom = Mushy Ball (c. 1900)Where We Were ~100 Years Ago…: Where We Were ~100 Years Ago…The “elementary particles” in the 19th century:: The Atoms of the 92 Elements 1. Hydrogen Mass MH 1.7 x 10-24 g 2. Helium 3. Lithium ............. ............. 92. Uranium Mass 238 MH increasing mass Estimate of a typical atomic radius Number of atoms /cm3: Atomic volume: Packing fraction: f 0.52 — 0.74 NA 6 x 1023 mol-1 (Avogadro costant) A: molar mass : density Example: Iron (A = 55.8 g; = 7.87 g cm-3) R = (1.1 — 1.3) x 10-8 cm The “elementary particles” in the 19th century:1894 – 1897: Discovery of the electron: Study of “cathode rays”: electric current in tubes at very low gas pressure (“glow discharge”) Measurement of the electron mass: me MH/1836 “Could anything at first sight seem more impractical than a body which is so small that its mass is an insignificant fraction of the mass of an atom of hydrogen?” (J.J. Thomson) Thomson’s atomic model: Electrically charged sphere Radius ~ 10-8 cm Positive electric charge Electrons with negative electric charge embedded in the sphere 1894 – 1897: Discovery of the electron J.J. Thomson ATOMS ARE NOT ELEMENTARY 1895-6: Discovery of natural radioactivity: 1895-6: Discovery of natural radioactivity (Roentgen: X-rays; Henri Becquerel: penetrating) Henri Becquerel 1909 - 13: Rutherford’s scattering experiments Discovery of the atomic nucleus Ernest Rutherford - particles : nuclei of Helium atoms spontaneously emitted by heavy radioactive isotopes Typical – particle velocity 0.05 c (c : speed of light) Science not always orderly: Roentgen (Nobel Prize) x-rays came from atomic emissions, but 16 years later could understand orbit structure of atoms: Bohr: Nobel Prize, atomic model Becquerel thought light-exposed flourescence gave X-rays, but then saw it in K-U-sulfate. 1/2 century before we knew that nucleus breaks apart!Slide8: Rutherford’s Scattering ExptSlide9: Expectations for – atom scattering – atom scattering at low energies is dominated by Coulomb interaction – particles with impact parameter = b “see” only electric charge within sphere of radius = b (Gauss theorem for forces proportional to r-2 ) For Thomson’s atomic model the electric charge “seen” by the – particle is zero, independent of impact parameter no significant scattering at large angles is expectedRutherford’s observation:: Nuclear radius 10-13 cm 10-5 x atomic radius Mass of the nucleus mass of the atom (to a fraction of 1‰ ) Rutherford’s observation: significant scattering of – particles at large angles, consistent with scattering expected for a sphere of radius few x 10-13 cm and electric charge = Ze, with Z = 79 (atomic number of gold) and e = |charge of the electron| an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons Two questions:: Two questions: Why did Rutherford need – particles to discover the atomic nucleus? Why do we need huge accelerators to study particle physics today? Answer to both questions from basic principles of Quantum Mechanics Observation of very small objects using visible lightSlide12: Aperture diameter: D = 20 m Focal length: 20 cm y (mm) x (mm) Presence of opaque disk is detectable Observation of light diffraction, interpreted as evidence that light consists of waves since the end of the 17th century Angular aperture of the first circle (before focusing): = 1.22 / DSlide13: diameter = 4 m diameter = 2 m diameter = 1 m no opaque disk Opaque disk of variable diameter The presence of the opaque disk in the centre is detectable if its diameter is larger than the wavelength of the light The RESOLVING POWER of the observation depends on the wavelength Visible light: not enough resolution to see objects smaller than 0.2 – 0.3 mOpaque screen with two circular apertures: Opaque screen with two circular apertures x (mm) y (mm) Image obtained by shutting one aperture alternatively for 50% of the exposure time Image obtained with both apertures open simultaneously x (mm) y (mm)Photoelectric effect:: Observation of a threshold effect as a function of the frequency of the light impinging onto the electrode at negative voltage (cathode): Frequency < 0 : electric current = zero, independent of luminous flux; Frequency > 0 : current > 0, proportional to luminous flux Photoelectric effect: evidence that light consists of particles INTERPRETATION (A. Einstein): Albert Einstein Threshold energy E0 = h0: the energy needed to extract an electron from an atom (depends on the cathode material) Light consists of particles (“photons”) Photon energy proportional to frequency: Planck: energy quanta (1900) Einstein: photo-electric effectSlide16: Repeat the experiment with two circular apertures using a very weak light source Luminous flux = 1 photon /second (detectable using modern, commercially available photomultiplier tubes) Need very long exposure time Question: which aperture will photons choose? Answer: diffraction pattern corresponds to both apertures simultaneously open, independent of luminous flux Photons have both particle and wave properties simultaneously It is impossible to know which aperture the photon traversed The photon can be described as a coherent superposition of two states1924: De Broglie’s principle: 1924: De Broglie’s principle Louis de Broglie Not only light, but also matter particles possess both the properties of waves and particles Relation between wavelength and momentum: h: Planck constant p = m v : particle momentum Hypothesis soon confirmed by the observation of diffraction pattern in the scattering of electrons from crystals, confirming the wave behaviour of electrons (Davisson and Germer, 1927) Wavelength of the – particles used by Rutherford in the discovery of the atomic nucleus: 0.05 c ~ resolving power of Rutherford’s experiment -particle massTypical tools to study objects of very small dimensions: Typical tools to study objects of very small dimensionsUnits in particle physics: Units in particle physics Energy 1 electron-Volt (eV): the energy of a particle with electric charge = |e|, initially at rest, after acceleration by a difference of electrostatic potential = 1 Volt (e = 1.60 x 10 -19 C) 1 eV = 1.60 x 10 -19 J Multiples: 1 keV = 103 eV ; 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV; 1 TeV = 1012 eV Energy of a proton in the LHC (in the year 2007): 7 TeV = 1.12 x 10 -6 J (the same energy of a body of mass = 1 mg moving at speed = 1.5 m /s) Energy and momentum for relativistic particles: Energy and momentum for relativistic particles (velocity v comparable to c) Speed of light in vacuum c = 2.99792 x 108 m / s Total energy: Expansion in powers of (v/c): Momentum: Slide21: E2 – p2c2 = (m0c2) 2 “relativistic invariant” (same value in all reference frames) Special case: the photon (v = c in vacuum) E = h = h / p E / p = = c (in vacuum) E2 – p2c2 = 0 photon rest mass mg = 0 Momentum units: eV/c (or MeV/c, GeV/c, ...) Mass units: eV/c2 (or MeV/c2, GeV/c2, ...) Numerical example: electron with v = 0. 99 c Rest mass: me = 0.511 MeV/c2 (often called “Lorentz factor”) Total energy: E = me c2 = 7.089 x 0.511 = 3.62 MeV Momentum: p = (v / c) x (E / c) = 0.99 x 3.62 = 3.58 MeV/cFirst (wrong) ideas about nuclear structure: First (wrong) ideas about nuclear structure (before 1932) Observations Mass values of light nuclei multiples of proton mass (to few %) (proton nucleus of the hydrogen atom) decay: spontaneous emission of electrons by some radioactive nuclei Hypothesis: the atomic nucleus is a system of protons and electrons strongly bound together Nucleus of the atom with atomic number Z and mass number A: a bound system of A protons and (A – Z) electrons Total electric charge of the nucleus = [A – (A – Z)]e = Z e Problem with this model: the “Nitrogen anomaly” Spin of the Nitrogen nucleus = 1 Spin: intrinsic angular momentum of a particle (or system of particles) In Quantum Mechanics only integer or half-integer multiples of ħ (h / 2) are possible: integer values for orbital angular momentum (e.g., for the motion of atomic electrons around the nucleus) both integer and half-integer values for spinDISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON: Electron, proton spin = ½ħ (measured) Nitrogen nucleus (A = 14, Z = 7): 14 protons + 7 electrons = 21 spin ½ particles TOTAL SPIN MUST HAVE HALF-INTEGER VALUE Measured spin = 1 (from hyperfine splitting of atomic spectral lines) DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRON (Chadwick, 1932) Neutron: a particle with mass proton mass but with zero electric charge Solution to the nuclear structure problem: Nucleus with atomic number Z and mass number A: a bound system of Z protons and (A – Z) neutrons James Chadwick Nitrogen anomaly: no problem if neutron spin = ½ħ Nitrogen nucleus (A = 14, Z = 7): 7 protons, 7 neutrons = 14 spin ½ particles total spin has integer value Neutron source in Chadwick’s experiments: a 210Po radioactive source (5 MeV – particles ) mixed with Beryllium powder emission of electrically neutral radiation capable of traversing several centimetres of Pb: 4He2 + 9Be4 12C6 + neutron - particle Rutherford was leading Chadwick. Rutherford guessed that protons were carrying the charge of the nucleus after a nitrogen atom expelled hydrogen on being hit by alphas. Chadwick discovered the actual neutron in 1932. The Curies had seen it but misinterpreted it as x-rays… Saw electrically neutral radiation from alphas on beryllium. Chadwick added paraffin, which ejected protons, too heavy to be removed by x-rays. He guessed they were neutrons: same weight as proton, and what Rutherford had hypothesized.Basic principles of particle detection: Basic principles of particle detection Passage of charged particles through matter Interaction with atomic electrons ionization (neutral atom ion+ + free electron) excitation of atomic energy levels (de-excitation photon emission) proportional to (electric charge)2 of incident particle Mean energy loss rate – dE /dx for a given material, function only of incident particle velocity typical value at minimum: -dE /dx = 1 – 2 MeV /(g cm-2) NOTE: traversed thickness (dx) is given in g /cm2 to be independent of material density (for variable density materials, such as gases) – multiply dE /dx by density (g/cm3) to obtain dE /dx in MeV/cmResidual range: Passage of neutral particles through matter: no interaction with atomic electrons detection possible only in case of collisions producing charged particles Residual range Residual range of a charged particle with initial energy E0 losing energy only by ionization and atomic excitation: M: particle rest mass v: initial velocity the measurement of R for a particle of known rest mass M is a measurement of the initial velocity Neutron discovery: observation and measurement of nuclear recoils in an “expansion chamber” filled with Nitrogen at atmospheric pressureSlide26: Assume that incident neutral radiation consists of particles of mass m moving with velocities v < Vmax Determine max. velocity of recoil protons (Up) and Nitrogen nuclei (UN) from max. observed range From measured ratio Up / UN and known values of mp, mN determine neutron mass: m mn mp Present mass values : mp = 938.272 MeV/c2; mn = 939.565 MeV/c2 Pauli’s exclusion principle: Pauli’s exclusion principle In Quantum Mechanics the electron orbits around the nucleus are “quantized”: only some specific orbits (characterized by integer quantum numbers) are possible. Example: allowed orbit radii and energies for the Hydrogen atom In atoms with Z > 2 only two electrons are found in the innermost orbit – WHY? ANSWER (Pauli, 1925): two electrons (spin = ½) can never be in the same physical state Wolfgang Pauli Pauli’s exclusion principle applies to all particles with half-integer spin (collectively named Fermions)ANTIMATTER: ANTIMATTER Discovered “theoretically” by P.A.M. Dirac (1928) Dirac’s equation: a relativistic wave equation for the electron Two surprising results: Motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field: presence of a term describing (for slow electrons) the potential energy of a magnetic dipole moment in a magnetic field existence of an intrinsic electron magnetic dipole moment opposite to spin For each solution of Dirac’s equation with electron energy E > 0 there is another solution with E < 0 What is the physical meaning of these “negative energy” solutions ?Slide29: Dirac’s assumptions: nearly all electron negative-energy states are occupied and are not observable. electron transitions from a positive-energy to an occupied negative-energy state are forbidden by Pauli’s exclusion principle. electron transitions from a positive-energy state to an empty negative-energy state are allowed electron disappearance. To conserve electric charge, a positive electron (positron) must disappear e+e– annihilation. electron transitions from a negative-energy state to an empty positive-energy state are also allowed electron appearance. To conserve electric charge, a positron must appear creation of an e+e– pair. empty electron negative–energy states describe positive energy states of the positron Dirac’s perfect vacuum: a region where all positive-energy states are empty and all negative-energy states are full. Positron magnetic dipole moment = e but oriented parallel to positron spinExperimental confirmation of antimatter: Experimental confirmation of antimatter (C.D. Anderson, 1932) Detector: a Wilson cloud – chamber (visual detector based on a gas volume containing vapour close to saturation) in a magnetic field, exposed to cosmic rays Measure particle momentum and sign of electric charge from magnetic curvature Lorentz force Circle radius for electric charge |e|: NOTE: impossible to distinguish between positively and negatively charged particles going in opposite directions need an independent determination of the particle direction of motionSlide31: First experimental observation of a positronNeutrinos: Neutrinos A puzzle in – decay: the continuous electron energy spectrum If – decay is (A, Z) (A, Z+1) + e–, then the emitted electron is mono-energetic: electron total energy E = [M(A, Z) – M(A, Z+1)]c2 (neglecting the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus ½p2/M(A,Z+1) << E) Several solutions to the puzzle proposed before the 1930’s (all wrong), including violation of energy conservation in – decaySlide33: December 1930: public letter sent by W. Pauli to a physics meeting in Tübingen NOTES Pauli’s neutron is a light particle not the neutron that will be discovered by Chadwick one year later As everybody else at that time, Pauli believed that if radioactive nuclei emit particles, these particles must exist in the nuclei before emission Theory of -decay: Theory of -decay (E. Fermi, 1932-33) Fermi’s theory: a point interaction among four spin ½ particles, using the mathematical formalism of creation and annihilation operators invented by Jordan particles emitted in – decay need not exist before emission – they are “created” at the instant of decay Prediction of – decay rates and electron energy spectra as a function of only one parameter: Fermi coupling constant GF (determined from experiments) Energy spectrum dependence on neutrino mass (from Fermi’s original article, published in German on Zeitschrift für Physik, following rejection of the English version by Nature) Measurable distortions for > 0 near the end-point (E0 : max. allowed electron energy)Neutrino detection: Neutrino detection Interaction mean free path: = 1 / n Interaction probability for finite target thickness T = 1 – exp(–T / ) Interaction probability T / very small (~10–18 per metre H2O) need very intense sources for antineutrino detection Nuclear reactors:: Nuclear reactors: very intense antineutrino sources Average fission: n + 235U92 (A1, Z) + (A2, 92 – Z) + 2.5 free neutrons + 200 MeV nuclei with large neutron excess a chain of decays with very short lifetimes: (until a stable or long lifetime nucleus is reached) First neutrino detection: First neutrino detection (Reines, Cowan 1953) detect 0.5 MeV -rays from e+e– (t = 0) E = 0.5 MeV neutron “thermalization” followed by capture in Cd nuclei emission of delayed -rays (average delay ~30 s) Event rate at the Savannah River nuclear power plant: 3.0 0.2 events / hour (after subracting event rate measured with reactor OFF ) in agreement with expectationsCOSMIC RAYS: COSMIC RAYS Discovered by V.F. Hess in the 1910’s by the observation of the increase of radioactivity with altitude during a balloon flight Until the late 1940’s, the only existing source of high-energy particles Composition of cosmic rays at sea level – two main components Electromagnetic “showers”, consisting of many e and -rays, mainly originating from: + nucleus e+e– + nucleus (pair production/“conversion”) e + nucleus e + + nucleus (“bremsstrahlung”) The typical mean free path for these processes (“radiation length”, x0 ) depends on Z. For Pb (Z = 82) x0 = 0.56 cm Thickness of the atmosphere 27 x0 Muons ( ) capable of traversing as much as 1 m of Pb without interacting; tracks observed in cloud chambers in the 1930’s. Determination of the mass by simultaneous measurement of momentum p = mv(1 – v2/c2)-½ (track curvature in magnetic field) and velocity v (ionization): mm = 105.66 MeV/c2 207 meMuon decay: Muon decay Muon lifetime at rest: = 2.197 x 10 - 6 s 2.197 s Muon decay mean free path in flight: muons can reach the Earth surface after a path 10 km because the decay mean free path is stretched by the relativistic time expansion Muon spin = ½ Particle interactions: Particle interactions (as known until the mid 1960’s) Gravitational interaction (all particles) Totally negligible in particle physics Example: static force between electron and proton at distance D In order of increasing strength: Weak interaction (all particles except photons) Responsible for decay and for slow nuclear fusion reactions in the star core Example: in the core of the Sun (T = 15.6 x 106 ºK) 4p 4He + 2e+ + 2 Solar neutrino emission rate ~ 1.84 x 103 8 neutrinos / s Flux of solar neutrinos on Earth ~ 6.4 x 1010 neutrinos cm-2 s –1 Very small interaction radius Rint (max. distance at which two particles interact) (Rint = 0 in the original formulation of Fermi’s theory) Electromagnetic interaction (all charged particles) Responsible for chemical reactions, light emission from atoms, etc. Infinite interaction radius (example: the interaction between electrons in transmitting and receiving antennas)Slide41: Strong interaction ( neutron, proton, .... NOT THE ELECTRON ! ) Responsible for keeping protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus Independent of electric charge Interaction radius Rint 10 –13 cm In Relativistic Quantum Mechanics static fields of forces DO NOT EXIST ; the interaction between two particles is “transmitted” by intermediate particles acting as “interaction carriers” Example: electron – proton scattering (an effect of the electromagnetic interaction) is described as a two-step process : 1) incident electron scattered electron + photon 2) photon + incident proton scattered proton The photon ( ) is the carrier of the electromagnetic interaction “Mass” of the intermediate photon: Q2 E2 – p2 c2 = – 2 p2 c2 ( 1 – cos ) The photon is in a VIRTUAL state because for real photons E2 – p2 c2 = 0 (the mass of real photons is ZERO ) – virtual photons can only exist for a very short time interval thanks to the “Uncertainty Principle”The Uncertainty Principle: The Uncertainty Principle Werner Heisenberg CLASSICAL MECHANICS Position and momentum of a particle can be measured independently and simultaneously with arbitrary precision QUANTUM MECHANICS Measurement perturbs the particle state position and momentum measurements are correlated: (also for y and z components) Similar correlation for energy and time measurements: Quantum Mechanics allows a violation of energy conservation by an amount E for a short time t ħ / E 1937: Theory of nuclear forces: 1937: Theory of nuclear forces (H. Yukawa) Existence of a new light particle (“meson”) as the carrier of nuclear forces (140GeV) Relation between interaction radius and meson mass m: Yukawa’s meson initially identified with the muon – in this case – stopping in matter should be immediately absorbed by nuclei nuclear breakup (not true for stopping + because of Coulomb repulsion - + never come close enough to nuclei, while – form “muonic” atoms) Experiment of Conversi, Pancini, Piccioni (Rome, 1945): study of – stopping in matter using – magnetic selection in the cosmic rays In light material (Z 10) the decays mainly to electron (just as +) In heavier material, the disappears partly by decaying to electron, and partly by nuclear capture (process later understood as + p n + ). However, the rate of nuclear captures is consistent with the weak interaction. Hideki Yukawa1947: Discovery of the - meson: 1947: Discovery of the - meson (the “real” Yukawa particle) C.F. Powell: Observation of the + + e+ decay chain in nuclear emulsion exposed to cosmic rays at high altitudes Nuclear emulsion: a detector sensitive to ionization with ~1 m space resolution (AgBr microcrystals suspended in gelatin) In all events the muon has a fixed kinetic energy (4.1 MeV, corresponding to a range of ~ 600 m in nuclear emulsion) two-body decay – at rest undergoes nuclear capture, as expected for the Yukawa particle A neutral meson (°) also exists: m (°) = 134. 98 MeV /c2 Decay: ° + , mean life = 8.4 x 10-17 s mesons are the most copiously produced particles in proton – proton and proton – nucleus collisions at high energiesSlide45: New Types of Matter! Fermilab: Bubble Chamber Photo More and More Mystery particlesCONSERVED QUANTUM NUMBERS: CONSERVED QUANTUM NUMBERS Why is the free proton stable? Possible proton decay modes (allowed by all known conservation laws: energy – momentum, electric charge, angular momentum): p ° + e+ p ° + + p + + . . . . . No proton decay ever observed – the proton is STABLE Limit on the proton mean life: p > 1.6 x 1025 years Invent a new quantum number : “Baryonic Number” B B = 1 for proton, neutron B = -1 for antiproton, antineutron B = 0 for e± , ± , neutrinos, mesons, photons Require conservation of baryonic number in all particle processes: ( i : initial state particle ; f : final state particle)Strangeness: Strangeness Late 1940’s: discovery of a variety of heavier mesons (K – mesons) and baryons (“hyperons”) – studied in detail in the 1950’s at the new high-energy proton synchrotrons (the 3 GeV “cosmotron” at the Brookhaven National Lab and the 6 GeV Bevatron at Berkeley) Examples of mass values Mesons (spin = 0): m(K±) = 493.68 MeV/c2 ; m(K°) = 497.67 MeV/c2 Hyperons (spin = ½): m() = 1115.7 MeV/c2 ; m(±) = 1189.4 MeV/c2 m(°) = 1314.8 MeV/c2; m( – ) = 1321.3 MeV/c2 Properties Abundant production in proton – nucleus , – nucleus collisions Production cross-section typical of strong interactions ( > 10-27 cm2) Production in pairs (example: – + p K° + ; K– + p – + K+ ) Decaying to lighter particles with mean life values 10–8 – 10–10 s (as expected for a weak decay) Examples of decay modes K± ± ° ; K± ± +– ; K± ± ° ° ; K° +– ; K° ° ° ; . . . p – ; n ° ; + p ° ; + n + ; + n – ; . . . – – ; ° °Slide48: Invention of a new, additive quantum number “Strangeness” (S) (Gell-Mann, Nakano, Nishijima, 1953) conserved in strong interaction processes: not conserved in weak decays: S = +1: K+, K° ; S = –1: , ±, ° ; S = –2 : °, – ; S = 0 : all other particles (and opposite strangeness –S for the corresponding antiparticles)Antiproton discovery (1955): Antiproton discovery (1955) Threshold energy for antiproton ( p ) production in proton – proton collisions Baryon number conservation simultaneous production of p and p (or p and n) Example: Threshold energy ~ 6 GeV build a beam line for 1.19 GeV/c momentum select negatively charged particles (mostly – ) reject fast – by Čerenkov effect: light emission in transparent medium if particle velocity v > c / n (n: refraction index) – antiprotons have v < c / n no Čerenkov light measure time of flight between counters S1 and S2 (12 m path): 40 ns for – , 51 ns for antiprotons For fixed momentum, time of flight gives particle velocity, hence particle massSlide50: Example of antiproton annihilation at rest in a liquid hydrogen bubble chamberDISCRETE SYMMETRIES: DISCRETE SYMMETRIES PARITY: the reversal of all three axes in a reference frame P transformation equivalent to a mirror reflection PARITY INVARIANCE: All physics laws are invariant with respect to a P transformation; For any given physical system, the mirror-symmetric system is equally probable; In particle physics Nature does not know the difference between Right and Left. Slide52: Vector transformation under P (all three components change sign) (the three components do not change) A puzzle in the early 1950’s : the decays K+ + ° and K+ 3 (+ + – and + ° ° ) A system of two – mesons and a system of three – mesons, both in a state of total angular momentum = 0, have OPPOSITE PARITIESSlide53: 1956: Suggestion (by T.D. Lee and C.N. Yang) Weak interactions are NOT INVARIANT under Parity Parity invariance requires that the two states must be produced with equal probabilities the emitted + is not polarized Experiments find that the + has full polarization opposite to the momentum direction STATE A DOES NOT EXIST MAXIMAL VIOLATION OF PARITY INVARIANCECHARGE CONJUGATION ( C ): CHARGE CONJUGATION ( C ) Particle antiparticle transformation Experiments find that state B does not exist A BSlide55: Method to measure the m+ polarization (R.L. Garwin, 1957) Electron angular distribution from + decay at rest : dN / d = 1 + cos : angle between electron direction and + spin sm cos sm · pe (term violating P invariance) Spin precession: cos cos (t + ) modulation of the decay electron time distribution Experimental results: = - 1 / 3 evidence for P violation in + decay Simultaneous measurement of the + magnetic moment: Another neutrino: Another neutrino A possible solution: existence of a new, conserved “muonic” quantum number distinguishing muons from electrons If e , interactions produce – and not e– (example: + n – + p)Slide57: 1962: nm discovery at the Brookhaven AGS (a 30 GeV proton synchrotron running at 17 GeV for the neutrino experiment) 13. 5 m iron shielding (enough to stop 17 GeV muons) Neutrino energy spectrum known from , K production and , K decay kinematicsTHE “STATIC” QUARK MODEL: THE “STATIC” QUARK MODEL Late 1950’s – early 1960’s: discovery of many strongly interacting particles at the high energy proton accelerators (Berkeley Bevatron, BNL AGS, CERN PS), all with very short mean life times (10–20 – 10–23 s, typical of strong decays) catalog of > 100 strongly interacting particles (collectively named “hadrons”) ARE HADRONS ELEMENTARY PARTICLES?Prediction and discovery of the – particle: Prediction and discovery of the – particle A success of the static quark model The “decuplet” of spin baryonsSlide62: The first – event (observed in the 2 m liquid hydrogen bubble chamber at BNL using a 5 GeV/c K– beam from the 30 GeV AGS)“DYNAMIC” EVIDENCE FOR QUARKS: “DYNAMIC” EVIDENCE FOR QUARKS Electron – proton scattering using a 20 GeV electron beam from the Stanford two – mile Linear Accelerator (1968 – 69). The modern version of Rutherford’s original experiment: resolving power wavelength associated with 20 GeV electron 10-15 cm Three magnetic spectrometers to detect the scattered electron: 20 GeV spectrometer (to study elastic scattering e– + p e– + p) 8 GeV spectrometer (to study inelastic scattering e– + p e– + hadrons) 1.6 GeV spectrometer (to study extremely inelastic collisions)Slide65: Electron elastic scattering from a point-like charge |e| at high energies: differential cross-section in the collision centre-of-mass (Mott’s formula) Scattering from an extended charge distribution: multiply sM by a “form factor”: |Q| = ħ / D : mass of the exchanged virtual photon D: linear size of target region contributing to scattering Increasing |Q| decreasing target electric charge F (|Q2| ) = 1 for a point-like particle the proton is not a point-like particle Inelastic electron – proton collisions: Inelastic electron – proton collisions For deeply inelastic collisions, the cross-section depends only weakly on |Q2| , suggesting a collision with a POINT-LIKE objectInterpretation of deep inelastic e - p collisions: Interpretation of deep inelastic e - p collisions Deep inelastic electron – proton collisions are elastic collisions with point-like, electrically charged, spin ½ constituents of the proton carrying a fraction x of the incident proton momentum Each constituent type is described by its electric charge ei (units of | e |) and by its x distribution (dNi /dx) (“structure function”) If these constituents are the u and d quarks, then deep inelastic e – p collisions provide information on a particular combination of structure functions: (Neutrino interactions do not depend on electric charge)PHYSICS WITH e+e– COLLIDERS: PHYSICS WITH e+e– COLLIDERS Two beams circulating in opposite directions in the same magnetic ring and colliding head-on Virtual photon energy – momentum : E = 2E , p = 0 Q2 = E2 – p2c 2 = 4E 2Slide69: Experimental results from the Stanford e+e– collider SPEAR (1974 –75): For Q < 3. 6 GeV R 2. If each quark exists in three different states, R 2 is consistent with 3 x ( 2 / 3). This would solve the – problem. Between 3 and 4.5 GeV, the peaks and structures are due to the production of quark-antiquark bound states and resonances of a fourth quark (“charm”, c) of electric charge +2/3 Above 4.6 GeV R 4.3. Expect R 2 (from u, d, s) + 3 x (4 / 9) = 3.3 from the addition of the c quark alone. So the data suggest pair production of an additional elementary spin ½ particle with electric charge = 1 (later identified as the t – lepton (no strong interaction) with mass 1777 MeV/c2 ).Slide70: Final state : an electron – muon pair + missing energy Evidence for production of pairs of heavy leptons ±THE MODERN THEORY OF STRONG INTERACTIONS: : THE MODERN THEORY OF STRONG INTERACTIONS: the interactions between quarks based on “Colour Symmetry” Quantum ChromoDynamics (QCD) formulated in the early 1970’s Each quark exists in three states of a new quantum number named “colour” Particles with colour interact strongly through the exchange of spin 1 particles named “gluons”, in analogy with electrically charged particles interacting electromagnetically through the exchange of spin 1 photons A MAJOR DIFFERENCE WITH THE ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION Electric charge: positive or negative Photons have no electric charge and there is no direct photon-photon interaction Colour: three varieties Mathematical consequence of colour symmetry: the existence of eight gluons with eight variety of colours, with direct gluon – gluon interaction The observed hadrons (baryons, mesons ) are colourless combinations of coloured quarks and gluons The strong interactions between baryons, mesons is an “apparent” interaction between colourless objects, in analogy with the apparent electromagnetic interaction between electrically neutral atomsSlide72: Free quarks, gluons have never been observed experimentally; only indirect evidence from the study of hadrons – WHY? CONFINEMENT: coloured particles are confined within colourless hadrons because of the behaviour of the colour forces at large distances The attractive force between coloured particles increases with distance increase of potential energy production of quark – antiquark pairs which neutralize colour formation of colourless hadrons (hadronization) CONFINEMENT, HADRONIZATION: properties deduced from observation. So far, the properties of colour forces at large distance have no precise mathematical formulation in QCD.Slide73: e+ + e– hadrons A typical event at Q = 2E = 35 GeV: reconstructed charged particle tracks1962-66: Formulation of a Unified Electroweak Theory: 1962-66: Formulation of a Unified Electroweak Theory (Glashow, Salam, Weinberg) 4 intermediate spin 1 interaction carriers (“bosons”): the photon (g) responsible for all electromagnetic processes Z responsible for weak processes with no electric charge transfer (Neutral Current processes) PROCESSES NEVER OBSERVED BEFORE Require neutrino beams to search for these processes, to remove the much larger electromagnetic effects expected with charged particle beams three weak, heavy bosons W+ W– Z W± responsible for processes with electric charge transfer = ±1 (Charged Current processes)Slide75: First observation of Neutral Current processes in the heavy liquid bubble chamber Gargamelle at the CERN PS (1973) Example of + p (n) + hadrons (inelastic interaction) ( beam from + decay in flight) Slide76: Measured rates of Neutral Current events estimate of the W and Z masses (not very accurately, because of the small number of events): MW 70 – 90 GeV/c2 ; MZ 80 – 100 GeV/c2 too high to be produced at any accelerator in operation in the 1970’s 1975: Proposal to transform the new 450 GeV CERN proton synchrotron (SPS) into a proton – antiproton collider (C. Rubbia) Beam energy necessary to achieve the same collision energy on a proton at rest : E = 210 TeV Production of W and Z by quark – antiquark annihilation:UA1 and UA2 experiments (1981 – 1990): UA1 and UA2 experiments (1981 – 1990) Search for W± e± + (UA1, UA2) ; W± ± + (UA1) Z e+e– (UA1, UA2) ; Z + – (UA1) UA2: non-magnetic, calorimetric detector with inner trackerSlide78: One of the first W e + events in UA1 48 GeV electron identified by surrounding calorimeters Slide79: UA2 final results Events containing two high-energy electrons: Distributions of the “invariant mass” Mee (for Z e+e– Mee = MZ) Events containing a single electron with large transverse momentum (momentum component perpendicular to the beam axis) and large missing transverse momentum (apparent violation of momentum conservation due to the escaping neutrino from W e decay) mT (“transverse mass”): invariant mass of the electron – neutrino pair calculated from the transverse components only MW is determined from a fit to the mT distribution: MW = 80.35 ± 0.37 GeV/c2e+e– colliders at higher energies: e+e– colliders at higher energiesCONCLUSIONS: CONCLUSIONS The elementary particles today: 3 x 6 = 18 quarks + 6 leptons = 24 fermions (constituents of matter) + 24 antiparticles 48 elementary particles consistent with point-like dimensions within the resolving power of present instrumentation ( ~ 10-16 cm) 12 force carriers (, W±, Z, 8 gluons) + the Higgs spin 0 particle (NOT YET DISCOVERED) responsible for generating the masses of all particles