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第六章 国外翻译理论著作选段汉译: 

第六章 国外翻译理论著作选段汉译

第一节: 

第一节 81 In their work over the past twenty years, Susan Bassenett and André Lefevere have consistently built bridges within the field of translation studies and developed interdisciplinary connections to fields of study outside the discipline. In 1990, they were the first to suggest that translation studies take the ‘cultural turn’ and look toward work of cultural studies scholars. In their new book Constructing Cultures, they present a strong case for moving the field of cultural studies closer to translation studies. New strategies gleaned from translation histories, such as we see in Lefevere’s discussion of Aeneid translations or Bassanett’s discussion of Inferno translations that follow, not only give translators more insight into the actual practice of translation, but they also give cultural studies critics new insight into cultural manipulation by those in power. Following Bassnett and Lefevere, translators have increasingly become more empowered and less self-effacing, a development that has allowed theorists to better view the process of mediating between cultures and /or of introducing different words, forms, cultural nuances, and meaning into their own respective cultures. (Bassnett and Lefever, 2000: ix)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of five sentences, of which the first is in fact a simple sentence; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause; the third is again a simple sentence; the fourth is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, but the subject of the first coordinate clause has an attributive clause embedded; and the last is a simple sentence, followed by an appositive nominal phrase, in which there is an attributive clause embedded. For this reason, the fourth can be regarded as a compound complex sentence and the last can be regarded as a complex sentence. Of the five sentences, the last two are fairly long and the first three are rather short. 2. Additional complication： The first three sentences each begin with a prepositional phrase; in the fourth sentence, the part after the first comma assumes a parenthetic structure; and the last sentence begins with a present participle phrase and it has a long appositive phrase at its end with an attributive clause embedded.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： All the five sentences are periodic in structure either for the beginning with prepositional or participle phrases or for the embedding of a parenthesis. 2. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal in that the sentences are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures. 3. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, Susan Bassenett and André Lefevere; built bridges within the field of translation studies and developed interdisciplinary connections to fields of study outside the discipline; take the ‘cultural turn’ and look toward work of cultural studies scholars; Lefevere’s discussion of Aeneid translations or Bassanett’s discussion of Inferno translations; not only give translators more insight into the actual practice of translation, but they also give cultural studies critics new insight into cultural manipulation; more empowered and less self-effacing; of mediating between cultures and /or of introducing different words, forms, cultural nuances, and meaning into their own respective cultures; and words, forms, cultural nuances, and meaning.

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4. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: Susan Bassenett and André Lefevere is repeated either singularly or in combination; the pronoun they is repeatedly used to refer to Susan Bassenett and André Lefevere; cultural turn and cultural studies are used in connection, with the latter repeated used; the field, interdisciplinary, field of study, disciple and translation studies are used either as synonyms or in contrast; translation and translators are repeated used in a related manner, and so on. 5. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, consistently, translation, develop, interdisciplinary, cultural, scholar, constructing, present, strategy, history, translator, practice, critics, insight, manipulation, increasingly, empower, and others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 在过去20年的著述中，苏珊.巴斯内特和安德烈.勒菲弗尔坚持不懈地在翻译研究领域内架设桥梁，建立起通向翻译学科之外的其他研究领域的联系。1990年，他们率先提出翻译研究应该实现“文化转向”，审视文化研究学者们的著述。在他们的新作《文化建构》一书中，他们用有力的事例说明，文化研究领域正在向翻译研究靠拢。我们从后面勒菲弗尔关于翻译《阿雷得》的或巴斯内特关于翻译《尹佛诺》的讨论中会看到，新的翻译策略，从翻译历史中汲取营养，不仅为译者提供了洞察实际翻译操作的新视野，也为文化研究批评家们提供了审视掌权者进行文化操纵的新观点。接受巴斯内特和勒菲弗尔的观点，翻译家们越来越具有驾驭能力，越来越不遮遮掩掩。这种发展趋势，使理论家们能更好地看清文化的中介过程，同时或者更清楚了将不同的词语、形式、文化的细微差异和意义引入他们自己的文化的过程。 Comments: The present translation has two preeminent characteristics. First, it follows the original strictly, and consequently, some expressions are too long and clumsy, for example, 我们从后面勒菲弗尔关于翻译《阿雷得》的或巴斯内特关于翻译《尹佛诺》的讨论中会看到，新的翻译策略，从翻译历史中汲取营养，不仅为译者提供了洞察实际翻译操作的新视野，也为文化研究批评家们提供了审视掌权者进行文化操纵的新观点 and这种发展趋势，使理论家们能更好地看清文化的中介过程，同时或者更清楚了将不同的词语、形式、文化的细微差异和意义引入他们自己的文化的过程. Secondly, the translations of Aeneid and Inferno into《阿雷得》and 《尹佛诺》are against translation conventions.

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B) Translation 2: 在过去20年的著述中，苏珊.巴斯内特和安德烈.勒菲弗尔坚持不懈地在翻译研究领域内进行沟通，构建和翻译研究领域外的各领域的联系。1990年，他们率先建议，翻译研究应实现“文化转向”，从文化研究学者们那里汲取营养。在他们的新著《文化建构》一书中，他们以有力的证据说明了文化研究正在向翻译研究靠拢。后面勒菲弗尔对《埃涅依特》的各种译本所作的讨论，或巴斯内特对《地狱篇》的各种译本所作的讨论可以看出，新的战略从翻译历史汲取营养，不仅为译者审视实际翻译过程提供了更敏锐的洞察力，而且为文化研究批评家们审视当权者如何进行文化操纵提供了新的视角。追随巴斯内特和勒菲弗尔，译者们越来越崭露头角，较少低隐姓埋名。这一发展趋势，是理论家们更好地观照文化的中介过程，更好地观照将不同的词语、形式、文化差异和意义引入他们自己的文化之中的过程。 Comments: In the present translation, all the weak points are eliminated. However, the meaning of the first sentence is not made explicit, and 后面勒菲弗尔对《埃涅依特》的各种译本所作的讨论，或巴斯内特对《地狱篇》的各种译本所作的讨论可以看出，新的战略从翻译历史汲取营养，不仅为译者审视实际翻译过程提供了更敏锐的洞察力，而且为文化研究批评家们审视当权者如何进行文化操纵提供了新的视角 is still a clumsy translation.

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C) Translation 3: 在过去的20年中，苏珊.巴斯内特和安德烈.勒菲弗尔不断著书立说，努力在翻译研究领域内部进行沟通，架设通向翻译研究领域之外的桥梁。1990年，他们率先提出，翻译研究应“转向文化”，从文化研究学者那里汲取营养。在其新著《文化建构》中，他们以有力的证据说明了文化研究正在向翻译研究靠拢。本书的后面，勒菲弗尔将对《埃涅依特》1的各种译本进行讨论，巴斯内特将对《地狱篇》2的各种译本进行讨论。从中可以看出，新的研究策略从翻译历史中汲取营养，不仅使译者能更洞察翻译的实际过程，而且为文化研究批评家研究当权者进行文化操纵提供了新的视角。以巴斯内特和勒菲弗尔的观点武装自己，译者的主人翁意识日益增强，隐姓埋名的做法日渐减少。这一发展趋势，使理论家更清晰地认识作为文化中介的翻译过程，更好地认识将不同的词语、形式、文化差异和意义引入自家文化的过程。 1 古罗马诗人维吉尔用拉丁文写的一部史诗，分为十二册，叙述特洛伊陷落以后的情况。埃涅依特 是约定俗成的译名。 2 但丁所作的《神曲》的第一部，传统上译为《地狱篇》。 Comments: Compared with the previous translation, the present translation has included two great changes. First, 在过去的20年中，苏珊.巴斯内特和安德烈.勒菲弗尔不断著书立说，努力在翻译研究领域内部进行沟通，架设通向翻译研究领域之外的桥梁and本书的后面，勒菲弗尔将对《埃涅依特》1的各种译本进行讨论，巴斯内特将对《地狱篇》2的各种译本进行讨论。从中可以看出，新的研究策略从翻译历史中汲取营养，不仅使译者能更洞察翻译的实际过程，而且为文化研究批评家研究当权者进行文化操纵提供了新的视角are substituted for the corresponding parts in the previous translation. Secondly, two notes are added for the convenience of the reader.

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82 We also need to learn more about the texts that constitute the cultural capital of other civilizations, and we need to learn about them in ways that try to overcome, or bypass the kiss of death bestowed by acculturation through analogy. Haikus are not epigrams, Chinese novels have their own rules, both the textual and conceptual grids of other civilizations should not be reduced to those of the West. We need to find out how to translate the cultural capital of other civilizations in a way that preserves at least part of their own nature, without producing translations that are so low on the entertainment factor that they appeal only to those who read for professional reasons. Perhaps this is another area in which different forms of rewriting need to cooperate: we could imagine the translated text, translated by a long introduction which sets out to show how the original text works on its own terms, within its own grid, rather than to tell readers only what it is ‘like’ or even ‘most like’ in their own cultures. This kind of attempt is mot likely to bring us up against the limits of translation, a necessary confrontation, for without such a challenge, how else are we ever to overcome such limits and move on? (Bassnett and Lefever 2000: 11)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first paragraph is composed of two sentences while the second paragraph is composed of three sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, each with an attributive clause embedded. In this sense, the sentence can be regarded as a compound complex one. The second is also a compound sentence, composed of three coordinate clauses. In the second paragraph, the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an elliptic object clause, which in turn has an attributive clause embedded; and at the end of the sentence, there is a prepositional phrase, in which there is an attributive clause embedded, which is in the so… that… pattern with the that clause serving as adverbial of result. The second is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, connected by a colon; in the first coordinate clause, there is another clause embedded serving as the prepositional object; the second coordinate clause is composed of a clause and a past participle phrase, which has an attributive clause embedded, and in the attributive clause, there are two coordinate infinitive phrases connected by rather than, and each infinitive phrase has an object clause embedded. The third is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by for.

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2. Additional complication： The two sentences in the first paragraph do not present any additional complication. In the second paragraph, however, the first sentence has a long prepositional phrase positioned at the end of the sentence; the second sentence begins with an adverb; the third sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded after the first comma.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the two sentences are loose in structure; in the second paragraph, the first sentence is loose in structure if the prepositional phrase at the end of the sentence is not regarded as parenthetic; the second sentence begins with an adverb and can be regarded as periodic; the third sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded and is periodic in structure. 2. Structural formality： All the five sentences are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures. 3. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, overcome, or bypass; Haikus are not epigrams, Chinese novels have their own rules; textual and conceptual; on its own terms, within its own grid; to show…, rather then to tell…; and ‘like’ or even ‘most like’.

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4. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: we, cultural capital, translated, own, like and limits are repeated; the pronoun them is used to refer to other civilizations; cultural, acculturation and culture are used as cognates; textual is used as a partial repetition of text; and there are others. 5. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used in the text, for example, constitute, cultural, capital, civilization, learn, overcome, bypass, bestow, acculturation, analogy, epigram, novel, textual, conceptual, reduce, translate, preserve, nature, producing, translation, entertainment, appeal, professional, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 我们还必须学会更多地了解构成异文明的文化资本的文本，我们要学会了解这些文明试图征服或逃脱类比产生的文化蚕食带来的劫难的方式。哈库斯不是短诗，中文小说有自己的规则，异文明的文本与概念网络不应该简化成西方的文本与概念网络。 我们必须发现如何将异文明的文化资本翻译成至少能部分地保留它们自己的本色，而不翻译成令人索然无味只有专业人士才去阅读的低劣译作。也许，这是各种形式的改写需要彼此合作的另一个领域：我们可以想象，翻译过的文本，带上一个很长的引言，以揭示原文文本在自己的网络系统中是如何别具一格的，而不是告诉读者，在他们自己的文化里，原文“像”个什么样子的或“酷似”什么样子的。这种尝试最有可能使我们去反对翻译的极限，这是我们必须面对的，因为，如果没有这样的挑战，我们将如何超越极限勇往直前呢？ Comments: Through translation, we have produced basically a readable, coherent and authentic text except for a mistake that Haiku is a form of Japanese poetry and Haikus is the plural form of Haiku. However, some sentences are too long, and the coherence between sentences is not sound enough. For example, 我们还必须学会更多地了解构成异文明的文化资本的文本，我们要学会了解这些文明试图征服或逃脱类比产生的文化蚕食带来的劫难的方式; 我们必须发现如何将异文明的文化资本翻译成至少能部分地保留它们自己的本色，而不翻译成令人索然无味只有专业人士才去阅读的低劣译作; and也许，这是各种形式的改写需要彼此合作的另一个领域：我们可以想象，翻译过的文本，带上一个很长的引言，以揭示原文文本在自己的网络系统中是如何别具一格的，而不是告诉读者，在他们自己的文化里，原文“像”个什么样子的或“酷似”什么样子的are too long for the Chinese reader and the parts before and after the colon in the above translation are not coherent enough.

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B) Translation 2: 我们还得学会了解构成他域文明的文化资本文本，了解这些文本是如何战胜或逃避通过类比实现文化同化所带来的劫难的。俳句不是隽语，中国小说有自己的规则，他域文明的文本网格和概念网格不应简化成西方的文本网格与概念网格。 我们还得找到翻译他域文明的文化资本的方法，译文至少部分地保留他域文明的原貌，而不至于生成兴味索然、人们为了求知才去阅读的译文。这或许已经进入了另一个领域，在这个领域中，不同的改写形式得相互合作：我们能够设想出一种译文文本，翻译时有一个很长的导言，以说明原文文本是如何以自身的条件、在自己的网格之内运作的，而不是以自己的文化为参照来告诉读者，原文“像”什么样的，甚至“酷似”什么样的。这种尝试最有可能使我们挑战翻译的极限，因为，如果没有这种挑战，我们又怎能跨越这种极限而勇往直前呢？ Comments: In the present translation, the mistake is put right now. Moreover, the first sentence of the original is translated shorter by omitting the repeated part我们还得学会; in the translation of the second paragraph of the original such translation techniques as insertion of a phrase or two for better coherence, making implied meaning more explicit and so on are employed. For example, 在这个领域中and 翻译时有are inserted; 为参照; 这种尝试; and跨越这种极限are more explicit expressions.

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C) Translation 3: 文本是构成他文化的文化资本的有机成分，我们还得学会更多地了解文本。通过类比夷平文化差异，这是死亡之吻1。我们还得了解这些文本是如何战胜或逃避这一劫难的。俳句2不是隽语，中文小说有自己的规则，他文明的文本网络和概念网络不应简化成西方的文本网络与概念网络。 我们还得找到翻译他文明的文化资本的方法，用这种方法翻译至少部分地保留他文明的原貌，而不至于生成索然无味、只有求知才去阅读的译文。这或许不是翻译，而是各种改写形式的相得益彰。我们不难想象出一种译文文本，带有一个很长的导言，以说明原文文本是如何以自身的条件、在自己的网络之内运作的，而不是比照自己的文化以告诉读者，原文“像”什么样的，甚至“酷似”什么样的。这种尝试最有可能使我们挑战翻译极限，因为，如果没有这种挑战，我们又怎能战胜超越极限而勇往直前呢？ 1 源于《圣经》，指犹太人以接吻为暗号出卖耶稣。结果耶稣被钉死在十字架上。 2 也称为十七音诗，日本诗体之一，一般以三句五、七、五共十七音组成一首短诗，多用隐喻和比较。 Comments: The present translation is different from the previous in two aspects. First, liberal translation, so to speak, is more frequently employed, for example, 文本是构成他文化的文化资本的有机成分，我们还得学会更多地了解文本and通过类比夷平文化差异，这是死亡之吻1。我们还得了解这些文本是如何战胜或逃避这一劫难的are used to translate the first sentence in the original and the translation is executed irrespective of the original structure, at least. 我们还得找到翻译他文明的文化资本的方法，用这种方法翻译至少部分地保留他文明的原貌，而不至于生成索然无味、只有求知才去阅读的译文and这或许不是翻译，而是各种改写形式的相得益彰are translated also irrespective of the original structure, and even of the original meaning. Secondly, two notes are added for readers’ sake.

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83 In what follows I shall not discuss the activity of translating, the actual process that leads to the production of translated texts in the field delimited by the language pair Chinese and English. Rather, I shall consider what I would like to call ‘translational practice’ both in the Chinese and Western traditions. By translational practice I mean a practice that integrates the actual activity of translating into itself. It precedes that activity in that it gives certain guidelines, whether these are followed by particular translators or not, that are themselves the product of thinking about the process of translation within a culture. Translational practice also follows the process of translating, since it plays a part in the reception of translated texts in the culture, or cultures for which they are intended. In short, translational practice is one of the strategies a culture devises for dealing with what we have learned to call ‘the Other’. The development of a translational strategy therefore also provides good indications of the kind of society one is dealing with. The fact that China, for instance, developed translational strategies only three times in its history, with the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from roughly the second to the seventh centuries AD, with the translation of the Christian scriptures starting in the sixteenth century AD, and with the translation of much Western thought and literature starting in the nineteenth century AD, says something about the image of the Other dominant in Chinese civilization, namely that the Other was not considered very important. Nor is China, as was sometimes erroneously believed, alone in that respect. A much more extreme example is provided by Classical Greece, which showed no interest in the Other, did not develop any thinking about translation and hardly translated anything at all. (Bassnett and Lefevere, 2000: 13)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of five sentences. The first is a complex sentence, consists of a prepositional phrase with an object clause embedded, a main clause and an appositive nominal phrase with an attributive clause embedded; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause; The third is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; The fourth is also a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and a prepositional phrase with an object clause embedded, which in turn has an attributive clause embedded at the end and between the precedent and the conjunction of the attributive clause there is an adverbial clause in the form of a parenthesis and in the pattern of whether…or not; and the last is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of reason, which in turn has an attributive clause embedded beginning with the preposition for.

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The second paragraph also consists of five sentences, of which the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and a nominal clause serving as the object of the preposition with; the second is also a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the third is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an appositive clause that immediately follows the fact at the very beginning of the sentence, and at the end of the sentence, there is another nominal clause appositive to the word image; the fourth is composed of a clause and a parenthetic adverbial clause of reason, and in this sense, the sentence can be regarded as complex in structure; and the last is still a complex sentence composed of a main clause and an attributive clause. From the above analysis, we can say that all the sentences in the selection are complex in structure without an exception, although their complexities are realized in different ways.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; the second sentence begins with an adverb; the third sentence again begins with prepositional phrase; the fourth sentence has a parenthetic clause embedded in the form of whether… or not; and the last sentence does not present any additional complication. In the second paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; the second sentence has an unmarked parenthetic phrase therefore embedded; in the third sentence, there are two parenthetic structures, one is for instance located between China and developed, and the other is in the form of the three coordinate with… phrases; the fourth sentence also has a parenthetic structure embedded after China and before alone; and the last sentence does not present any additional complication.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first four sentences are periodic in structure either for the beginning with a prepositional or an adverbial phrase or for the embedding of a parenthetic structure. In the second paragraph, the first four sentences are also periodic in structure for the same reason. 2. Structural complication： The ten sentences in the selection are all structurally complicated to some extent. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures, and therefore they are all structurally formal.

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4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, Chinese and English; Chinese and Western; whether these are followed by particular translators or not; culture, or cultures; with the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from roughly the second to the seventh centuries AD, with the translation of the Christian scriptures starting in the sixteenth century AD, and with the translation of much Western thought and literature starting in the nineteenth century AD; and showed no interest in the Other, did not develop any thinking about translation and hardly translated anything at all.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: I, translating, actual, activity, Chinese, translational practice, process, culture and so on are repeated; product is used as a partial repetition of production; reception is used in contrast with production; translation, translated, translating, translational and translator are used as cognates; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are also frequently used, for example, discuss, activity, translating, actual, process, production, translated, delimited, language, consider, translational, practice, tradition, integrate, precede, guideline, follow, particular, translator, product, translation, culture, reception, and others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 下面，我将不讨论翻译活动，不讨论在受到互译语言英语与汉语所限制的领域里产生译文文本的实际翻译过程。相反，我将考虑我倾向于称之为中国和西方传统都称之为翻译实践的东西。我说的翻译的实践，是将具体的翻译活动囊括其中的实践。它是翻译活动的前提，为翻译活动提供指导，虽然具体的译者不一定遵照执行。这些翻译指导本身是在一定的文化中对翻译过程进行思考的结果。翻译的实践也跟踪翻译过程，因为它在译文被译入文化接受的过程中起作用。 总之，翻译的实践是一种文化设计出的用于我们已经学会了称之为“异质”的东西打交道的策略之一。因此，翻译的策略的研发清楚地表明我们是在跟哪一种社会打交道。例如，中国在其历史进程中，仅有三次研发出翻译的策略，大约在公元二世纪到七世纪佛经翻译时期，公元六世纪开始的基督教圣经翻译时期，公元十九世纪开始的大量翻译西方思想和文学的时期。这一事实说明了异质在中华文明中富有影响的形象，也就是说，当时并不认为异质非常重要。在这方面，中国并不是绝无仅有的，但过去曾一度错误的地认为，中国是绝无仅有的。古希腊为我们提供了一个更加典型的例子，它对异质不感兴趣，没有什么关于翻译的思考，也基本上没有翻译什么东西。 Comments: The difficulty that lies in the translation of the present selection is that in English, the difference between translation and translating is apparent enough. However, in Chinese, it is difficult for us to express such inflectional and derivational differences by using the corresponding terms. Another difficulty lies in the translation of such terms as translational practice, the Other, and so on. In the present translation, we use 翻译活动for activity of translating; 翻译的实践for translational practice; and 异质for the Other.

Slide25: 

B) Translation 2: 后面我将不讨论翻译活动，不讨论生成译文文本的实际过程，讨论将限于在英汉互译的范围之内。或者说，我将考虑中西传统中的我称之为“翻译的实践”的东西。我所说的翻译的实践，是将翻译过程的具体活动结合期间的一种实践。这种实践先于翻译指导原则。翻译指导原则不管有关译者是否遵从，都是在一定的文化范围之内对翻译过程进行思考的产物。翻译的实践也滞后于翻译过程，因为它在译入文化接受译文文本时发挥作用。 总之，翻译的实践是一种策略，是一种文化借以与我们学会了称之为“他文化”打交道的策略。因此，一种翻译的策略的产生，也为人们与那种社会打交道提供了指南。例如，中国在历史上仅三次研发出翻译的策略，大约于公元二世纪到七世纪佛经翻译时期、于公元十六世纪开始的基督教经典翻译时期、于公元十九世纪开始的大量翻译西方思想与文学的时期。这一事实说明在中国文明中占统治地位的他文化的形象。换言之，在中国人看来，他文化并不十分重要。人们曾错误地认为，在这个问题上，中国是绝无仅有，其实不然。古希腊的例子更为典型，它对他文化毫无兴趣，对翻译没有进行过多少思考，基本上没有翻译什么作品。 Comments: In producing the present translation, sentences in the previous translation are reorganized, for example, 后面我将不讨论翻译活动，不讨论生成译文文本的实际过程，讨论将限于在英汉互译的范围之内; 相反，我将考虑我倾向于称之为中国和西方传统都称之为翻译实践的东西；这种实践先于翻译指导原则。翻译指导原则不管有关译者是否遵从，都是在一定的文化范围之内对翻译过程进行思考的产物。翻译的实践也滞后于翻译过程，因为它在译入文化接受译文文本时发挥作用. In addition, 他文化is used to substitute for异质, taking into consideration that the book from which the selection is chosen is about constructing cultures.

Slide26: 

C) Translation 3: 后面我不再讨论翻译行动，不再在英汉互译范围内讨论生成译文文本的实际过程。或者说，我将在中西传统框架内，思考我称之为“翻译的实践”的东西。我说的翻译的实践，是将具体翻译行为结合期间的一种实践。一方面，翻译的实践先于翻译行为，因为要从翻译行为抽象出翻译指导原则。而翻译指导原则不管有关译者是否遵从，都是在一定文化范围内对翻译过程进行思考的产物。另一方面，翻译的实践又后于翻译过程，因为它在译入文化接受译文文本时发挥作用。 简而言之，翻译的实践是一种谋略，是一种文化借以与“他文化”打交道的谋略。因此，一种翻译的谋略的产生，也为人们与有关社会打交道提供了指南。例如，中国历史上仅研发三次翻译的谋略，分别在大约从二世纪到七世纪佛经翻译时期、十六世纪开始的基督教经典翻译时期和十九世纪开始的大量翻译西方思想与西方文学时期。这说明他文化的形象在漫长的中国文明中只有过三度显赫。换言之，中国人认为，他文化并非举足轻重。人们曾错误地认为，在这个问题上，中国是绝无仅有。其实不然，古希腊更为典型。古希腊对他文化毫无兴致，没有思考过翻译问题，也没有翻译过什么作品。 Comments: In producing the present translation, changes are constantly made. For example, 谋略is substituted for策略; 简而言之is substituted for总之; 一方面, 另一方面, 漫长的and只有过三度are inserted for the clarity of ideas. In addition, such sentences as follows are results of reorganization: 后面我不再讨论翻译行动，不再在英汉互译范围内讨论生成译文文本的实际过程; 或者说，我将在中西传统框架内，思考我称之为“翻译的实践”的东西; 换言之，中国人认为，他文化并非举足轻重; 人们曾错误地认为，在这个问题上，中国是绝无仅有; 其实不然，古希腊更为典型。古希腊对他文化毫无兴致，没有思考过翻译问题，也没有翻译过什么作品.

Slide27: 

84 The object of the majority of translations that are produced in our day and age is the communication of information, be it about computers, cars, infusion pumps, and the like. The object of other translations – and they are a minority now, though they may not always have been – is the circulation of cultural capital. The difference between information and the cultural capital, in the sense in which the latter term has been introduced by Pierre Bourdieu, could be succinctly formulated as follows: information is what you need to function on the professional level, whereas cultural capital is what you need to be seen to belong to the ‘right circles’ in the society in which you live. The object of a third type of translations could be said to be situated on the level of entertainment: novels are translated, movies dubbed or subtitled, whereas the object of a fourth type of translations could be said to try to persuade the reader to adopt some course of action, as opposed to another. This rough distinction between four types of translation is predicated on the existence of, roughly, four types of texts. It is much too rudimentary, of course, not least because many texts that convey information or try to persuade also try to do so in a somewhat entertaining manner, whereas many texts that are primarily produced to provide entertainment can also be said to provide information and, at times, to succeed in persuading. (Bassnett and Lefevere, 2000: 41)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, each of which is composed of three sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of concession, and the subject of the main clause has an attributive clause embedded; the second sentence composed of a clause, in the subject of which there is a parenthetic complex clause embedded, composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of concession, and so the sentence can be regarded as a complex sentence; and the third is a compound complex sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by the colon; the first coordinate clause is complex in structure, consisting of a main clause and an attributive clause immediately with a prepositional phrase located in between, which has an attributive clause embedded beginning with the preposition in; and the second coordinate clause is compound in structure, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by whereas; and in each of the two, the predicative is itself a nominal clause although the second predicative clause has an attributive clause embedded beginning with the preposition in.

Slide29: 

In the second paragraph, the first is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, the first of which is a compound clause, composed of four clauses with the last three in coordination with the first on one hand and with each other on the other; and the second coordinate clause of the sentence has an elliptic attributive clause embedded at the very end. The second is actually a simple sentence while the third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of reason, which is composed of two coordinate clauses connected by whereas, and in either subject of the two clauses, there is an attributive clause embedded. In terms of additional structural complication, in the first paragraph, the adverbial clause of concession in the first sentence is in an inverted order and the predicate verb is in the form of an infinitive, and the inversion and the use of infinitive are both motivated by the omission of the conjunction whether. The second sentence, as mentioned before, contains a parenthetic complex clause between the two dashes; and the prepositional phrase together with the object clause is in the structure of parenthesis. In the second sentence of the second paragraph, there is a short parenthetic structure; and in the third sentence, there are two short parenthetic structures.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first is a loose sentence; the second is a periodic sentence for the embedding of the parenthetic complex clause; the third is also a periodic sentence for the embedding the parenthetic prepositional phrase together with the embedded clause. In the second paragraph, the first is a loose sentence and the other two are periodic sentences for the embedding of parenthetic structures, short as they are. 2. Structural complication： The selection is complicated in sentence structure for of the six sentences, only one of them is simple in structure and all the others are either complex or compound or complex compound or compound complex sentences. However, even that simple sentence has a short parenthetic structure embedded.

Slide31: 

3. Structural formality： All the sentences are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structure. In other words, they are all formal in structure. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, day and age; computers, cars, infusion pumps, and the like; information and the cultural capital; information is what you need to function on the professional level, whereas cultural capital is what you need to be seen to belong to the ‘right circles’ in the society in which you live; translated, movies dubbed or subtitled; the object of a third type of translations…, whereas the object of a fourth type of translations…; and many texts that convey information or try to persuade…, whereas many texts that are primarily produced to provide entertainment… . In addition, in the selection, the preposition of is used to express a verb-and-object relation by such nominal phrase as the communication of information; and the circulation of cultural capital.

Slide32: 

5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: the object of the majority of translations, the object of other translations, the object of a third type of translations and the object of a fourth type of translations are used in series; the classification of translations into four categories is based on the existence of four types of texts; computers, cars, infusion pumps, and the like are concerned with the communication of information; such key terms as object, translations, type, information and cultural capital are repeatedly used; the ‘right circles’ in society is used in contrast with the professional level; in the clause novels are translated, movies dubbed or subtitled, it is implied that dubbing and subtitling are two categories of translation; persuading is used in contrast with entertaining, and in contrast with the communication of information and the circulation of cultural capital, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： In the selection, formal words, including nominalizations, are ubiquitously used, for example, object, majority, translations, produce, communication, information, computer, infusion, minority, circulation, cultural, capital, difference, introduce, succinctly, formulate, follow, function, professional, circle, society, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 我们今天与当代生产的译文，大多数旨在交流信息，无论有关计算机的、汽车的、过滤泵还是别的，都是如此。另一个翻译目的是交流文化资本，这种译文现在是少数，虽然历史上可能并不是常常如此。信息和文化资本（皮耶尔.朵迪欧意义上的文化资本）之间的区别，可以简要地表述如下：信息是你在专业层面上所需要的东西，而文化资本是你所需要的、可以看成是属于你所生活的社会中的特定界别的东西。 第三种译文的目的可以说存在于娱乐层面上的：翻译的小说，配音或配有字幕的电影，而第四种译文的目的可以说是旨在劝说读者去采取某项行动，而不采取其他行动。这四种翻译的粗略区别是由于大致上存在四种译文而做出的。当然，这种区分非常肤浅，因为至少许多传递信息或旨在劝说的译作也以某种方式寓信息或劝说与娱乐于其中而进行的，而许多旨在提供娱乐的译作也可以说是提供信息的，有时还成功地实现了劝说。 Comments: By following the original strictly, we have produced a translation somewhat readable, coherent and authentic. One of the special techniques used is that the parenthetic structure concerned with the introduction of cultural capital is not placed in brackets, but it is still parenthetic in nature. However, some sentences in the translation are too long, for example, 而文化资本是你所需要的、可以看成是属于你所生活的社会中的特定界别的东西and 因为至少许多传递信息或旨在劝说的译作也以某种方式寓信息或劝说与娱乐于其中而进行的.

Slide34: 

B) Translation 2: 现今的大多数翻译，旨在交流信息，关于计算机、汽车、输油泵的等等，应有尽有。另一些翻译旨在传输文化资本。这类翻译过去可能占据多数，现在已不占多数。文化资本这个术语是皮埃尔.博迪欧引入的。信息和文化资本之间的差别可简述如下。信息是职业层面所需要的，而通过文化资本可以判别你属于你所生活的社会的哪个“适当的团体”。 第三种翻译可以说处于娱乐层面：小说翻译、电影配音或配置字幕；而第四种翻译可以说力图让读者采取某项行动而放弃别的行动。将翻译粗略地分成四类，是因为现行的文本可以粗略地分成四类。这种划分当然过于粗略，不仅因为许多旨在传输信息或劝说他人的文本也以某种娱乐的方式交流信息或进行劝说，许多主要旨在提供娱乐的文本也可以说提供了信息，有时也起到劝说作用。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence in the previous translation is reorganized; 传输is now used in collocation with文化资本; 信息是职业层面所需要的，而通过文化资本可以判别你属于你所生活的社会的哪个“适当的团体”and不仅因为许多旨在传输信息或劝说他人的文本也以某种娱乐的方式交流信息或进行劝说are retranslations; the parenthetic structure in the original has now become part of the text, and so on.

Slide35: 

C) Translation 3: 现在，压倒多数的译文，都旨在交流信息，有关于计算机的、汽车的、输油泵的等等。另一类译文旨在传输文化资本。这类翻译现已在数量上不占优势，虽然可能也曾有过辉煌。术语文化资本是皮埃尔.博迪欧首先使用的。信息和文化资本之间的差别简而言之就是，信息处于专业层面，文化资本用于人际层面，用以判别你属于社会的哪个“团体”。 第三种译文可以说处于娱乐层面：小说翻译、电影配音或配置字幕都属于此类；而第四种翻译可以说处于诱导层面，通过劝说让读者采取某一行动而放弃别的行动。将文译粗略地分成四类，是因为可以将现行文本粗略地分成四类。这种划分当然过于粗略，不仅因为许多旨在传输信息或诱导的文本在传输信息与进行诱导时，也寓娱乐于其中，许多主要旨在娱乐的文本也提供信息，有时也起到诱导作用。 Comments: In the present translation, authentic Chinese terms are frequently used, for example, 现在; 压倒多数; 数量上已不占优势; 也曾有过辉煌; 人际层面; 用以判别; 寓娱乐于其中, and so on. In addition, 都属于此类is an addition for authenticity and coherence. Consequently, the translation, with improved readability, coherence and authenticity, sounds more like Chinese writing.

Slide36: 

85 For two thousand years translation theory (some call it “traditional,” others now dismiss it as “prescientific”) was concerned only with outstanding works of art. For the last forty years “translation science,” or translatology, has been trying to establish itself as a new discipline focusing on an undefined and idealized “common core” of general language, but with concepts that in effect apply only to technical terminology. Literary language was excluded as being “deviant,” inaccessible to scientific analysis. This study is an attempt to bridge the gap. It is not (as the reader familiar with recent developments in translation theory might possibly infer from the title) a study on literary translation; it is rather an attempt to present recently developed concepts and methods, both from translation theory and linguistics, in such a way that they could be usefully employed in the theory, practice and analysis of literary translation. (Mary Snell-Hornby, 2001: 1)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of three sentences while the second is composed of two sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is actually a simple sentence, but in the brackets there is embedded a compound sentence composed of two coordinate clauses. The second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause with a prepositional phrase after but, in which there is an attributive clause embedded. The last is again a simple sentence. In the second paragraph, the first is again a simple sentence while the second is a compound sentence composed of two coordinate clauses. In the first clause, there is an adverbial clause of reason embedded in the brackets; and in the second clause, there is an attributive clause embedded. It is in this sense, we say that the first sentence in the first paragraph can be regarded as a complex sentence while the second sentence in the second paragraph can be regarded as compound complex sentence.

Slide38: 

2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets; the second sentence also begins with a prepositional phrase and has a parenthesis embedded, that is, or translatology; the third sentence ends in an adjective phrase modifying literary language at the very beginning. In the second paragraph, the second sentence has two parenthetic structures, one embedded in the brackets and the other embedded between methods and in such a way. However, other sentences in the selection are free from additional structural complication.

Slide39: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first two sentences are periodic and the last is loose if the adjective phrase at the end of the sentence is not regarded as a parenthetic structure. The second sentence in the second paragraph is apparently a periodic sentence. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences, except the first in the second paragraph, are structurally complicated to some extent. 3. Structural formality： All the five sentences in the selection are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, some call it “traditional,” others now dismiss it as “prescientific”; for two thousand years…, for the last fory years…; “translation science,” or translatology; undefined and idealized; “deviant,” and inaccessible; concepts and methods; translation theory and linguistics; and theory, practice and analysis of literary translation.

Slide40: 

5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: for two thousand years is used in contrast with for the last forty years; translatology is used as synonym for translation science; discipline is used as a synonym for translation theory, which is repeated; literary language is used in contrast with general language; literary translation is repeated and used in connection with literary language, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, translation, theory, translational, dismiss, prescientific, concerned, outstanding, science, translatology, establish, discipline, focusing, undefined, idealized, general, language, concept, effect, apply, technical, terminology, literary, exclude, deviant, inaccessible, scientific, analysis and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 两千年来，翻译理论（有些人称之为“传统的”，还有些人将它排斥为“前科学的”）只关注杰出的艺术著作。在最近四十年，“翻译的科学”或翻译学一直力图将自己建成为一门新的学科，集中于普通语言的没有定义的与理想化了的“共核”。但许多观念实际上仅应用于技术术语。文学语言被排斥在外，由于它是“偏离的”，难以通达科学分析。 这种研究是跨越空缺的一种尝试。它不是（正如熟悉翻译理论最新发展的读者从题目可能推导出来的那样）研究文学翻译的，而是尝试提供最近出现的许多概念和方法，既来自翻译理论也来自语言学，以这种方式，这些概念和方法能有用地应用于文学翻译的理论、实践和分析。 Comments: The present translation has included some concise and precise sentences, for example, 两千年来，翻译理论（有些人称之为“传统的”，还有些人将它排斥为“前科学的”）只关注杰出的艺术著作; 在最近四十年，“翻译的科学”或翻译学一直力图将自己建成为一门新的学科，集中于普通语言的没有定义的与理想化了的“共核”; and 它不是（正如熟悉翻译理论最新发展的读者从题目可能推导出来的那样）研究文学翻译的，而是尝试提供最近出现的许多概念和方法. However, other sentences are clumsy, for example, 文学语言被排斥在外，由于它是“偏离的”，难以通达科学分析; and以这种方式，这些概念和方法能有用地应用于文学翻译的理论、实践和分析.

Slide42: 

B) Translation 2: 两千年来，翻译理论（有些人称之为“传统的”，有些人斥之为“前科学的”）只关注杰出的艺术著作。最近四十年中，“翻译的科学”或翻译学一直力图将自己建成一门新的学科，集中研究普通语言的没有定义的与理想化了的“共核”，但许多概念实际上仅应用于技术术语。文学语言被视为“偏离”普通语言，难以进行科学分析而排斥在外。 本研究是填平沟壑的一种尝试。它不是（正如熟悉翻译理论最新发展的读者从书名就可以推知的那样）研究文学翻译的，而是尝试提供最近出现的许多概念和方法，它们既来自翻译理论也来自语言学，提供的方式是，使这些概念和方法能有用地应用于文学翻译的理论、实践和分析。 Comments: Compared with the previous translation, the present one has included such changes as the following: 有些人称之为“传统的”，有些人斥之为“前科学的; 文学语言被视为“偏离”普通语言; 提供的方式是, and so on.

Slide43: 

C) Translation 3: 两千多年来，翻译理论，或曰“传统理论”，或曰“前科学理论”，仅关注超凡脱俗的艺术著作。最近四十年里，“翻译科学”或翻译学一直力图将自己建成一门新兴学科，集中研究普通语言的没有定义的理想“共核”，但许多概念实际上仅具有技术术语意义，文学语言被视为“偏离”共核、难以进行科学分析而排斥在外。 熟悉翻译理论最新进展的读者一看书名便知，本研究虽试图弥补这一缺憾，并不打算研究文学翻译，仅试图将来自翻译理论和语言学的许多概念和方法提供给读者，使之裨益于文学翻译的理论、实践和分析。 Comments: In the present translation, the greatest change lies in the deletion of the brackets and the inclusion of the parenthetic structures into the body of the translated text. In addition, 或曰……, 或曰……; 超凡脱俗; 没有定义的理想共核; 仅具有技术术语意义; 偏离共核; and so on are substituted for the previous parts concerned. Furthermore, 熟悉翻译理论最新进展的读者一看书名便知is reorganized and fronted.

Exercises:: 

Exercises: 81 This study began to show that translation proper, the interpretation of verbal signs in one language by means of verbal signs in another, is a special heightened case of the process of communication and reception in any act of human speech. The fundamental epistemological and linguistic problems implicit in interlingual translation are fundamental just because they are already implicit in all interlingual discourse. What Jakobson calls ‘rewording’ – an interpretation of verbal signs in the same language – in fact raises issues of the same order as translation proper. This book has argued, therefore, that a ‘theory of translation’ (in the ‘inexact’, non-formalized sense in which I have sought to define this concept) is necessarily a theory or, rather, historical- psychological model, part deductive, part intuitive, of the operations of language itself. An ‘understanding of understanding’, a hermeneutic, will include both. It is, consequently, no accident that the methodical investigation of the nature of semantic processes begins with Kant’s call for a rational hermeneutic and with Schleirmacher’s study of the linguistic structures and tranalstionability of the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek scriptures. To study the status of meaning is to study the substance and limits of translation. (George Steiner, 2001: 436)

Slide45: 

82 Language differ in the way they perceive and partition reality. This situation creates serious problems for the translator and all those who work with languages in contact. Rarely, if ever, do we find anything more than a superficial correspondence between the various categories and divisions which different languages impose on the thought patterns of their speakers. As we saw in Chapter 2, any strict interpretation of the Sapir/Whorf hypothesis would imply that the gap between views of the world held by different linguistic communities is almost unbridgeable. This in effect would exclude the possibility of successful translation. There would be little point in denying the validity of some of the observations made by those who work within this hypothesis. It would, however, be futile to deny the possibility of translating. Cross-cultural communication through language takes place all the time and is generally successful. As observed particularly by those who work in Bible translation (e.g. Nida, 1964; Nida and Taber, 1969), where the emphasis is naturally on successful cultural encounter, there is sufficient shared experience even between users of languages which are culturally remote from each other to make translatability a tenable proposition. This position is also supported by research on language universals (see, e.g. Greenberg, 1968). A semiotic approach to text, context and translation supports the ‘common ground’ view. Lotman et al. (1975: 57) define culture as ‘ the functional correlation of different sign systems’. These different sign systems operate both within and between cultures, and semiotics deals with the processing and exchange of information both within and across cultural boundaries. Translating can now be envisaged as the process which transforms one semiotic entity into another, under certain equivalence conditions to do with semiotic codes, pragmatic action and general communicative requirements. (Basil Hatim & Ian Mason, 2001: 104-105)

Slide46: 

83 Translating is a complex and fascinating task. In fact, I. A. Richards (1953) has claimed that it is probably the most complex type of event in the history of the cosmos. And yet, translating is so natural and easy that children seem to have no difficulty in interpreting for their immigrant parents. These children normally do very well until they have gone to school and have learned about nouns, verbs, and adverbs. Then they often seem tongue-tied because they try to match the words and grammar rather than the content. Because of experience in learning a foreign language in school, most persons assume that literalness in translating means faithfulness to the text, even though close, literal renderings are often seriously misleading. In English, for example, the repetition of a word usually implies emphasis, but not in Bahasa Indonesia, where repetition only signals plurality. In the Quechua dialect of Bolivia the suffix -runa marks the preceding noun as plural, but in conversation Quechua speakers use the suffix only at the beginning of a section and do not constantly repeat it, as is the case with the plural suffix in Spanish. Accordingly, a literal translation which represents every plural –s in Spanish by the Quechua suffix –runa is regarded by Quechua speakers as being not only strange but even an insult to the intelligence of hearers. Because of the many discrepancies between meanings and structures of different languages, some persons have insisted that translating is impossible, and yet more and more translating is done and done well. Those who insist that translating is impossible are usually concerned with some of the more marginal features of figurative language and complex poetic structures. The use of figurative language is universal, but the precise figures of speech in one language rarely match those in another. (Eugene A. Nida, 2001: 3)

Slide47: 

84 In his article ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’, Roman Jakobson distinguishes three types of translation: (1) Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language). Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language). Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs by means of nonverbal sign systems). Having established these three types, of which (2) translation proper describes the process of transfer from SL to TL, Jakobson goes on immediately to point to the central problem in all types: that while messages may serve as adequate interpretations of code units or messages, there is ordinarily no full equivalence, and Jakobson shows how intralingual translation often has to resort to a combination of code units in order to fully interpret the meaning of a single unit. Hence a dictionary of so-called synonyms may give perfect as a synonym for ideal or vehicle as a synonym for conveyance but in neither case can there be said to be complete equivalence, since each unit contains within itself a set of non-translatable associations and connotations. Because complete equivalence (in the sense of synonymy or sameness) cannot take place in any of his categories, Jakobson declares that all poetic art is therefore technically untranslatable: Only creative transposition is possible: either intralingual transposition – from one poetic shape into another, or interlingual transposition – from one language into another, or finally intersemiotic transposition – from one system of signs into another, e.g. from verbal art into music, dance, cinema or painting. (Susan Bassenett, 2004: 22-23)

Slide48: 

85 Research in terminology serves both theoretical and practical goals. The methodology is basically one of detailed conceptual analysis, but it also involves bibliographical fieldwork and corpus processing, you first need to know the basics of terminology theory and its origins in the growing need for international standardization during the past century. This means e.g. understanding the difference between general language and domain-restricted language (e.g. Melby 1995), and knowing how to define a ‘term’. You also need to master the methodological and technical skills required: learning how to formulate a valid definition; learning how to represent various kinds of conceptual systems based on different kinds of relationships between concepts (e.g. hierarchical concept diagrams of various kinds); and learning how to use the computer programs such as Trados MultiTerm that have been developed specifically for terminological work. In the area of theory, cognitive and philosophical questions come to mind: what is a concept? What do terms represent? How do non-linguistic signs relate to linguistic signs? How can synonymy be accommodated in current models? How can current models be more dynamic? How do terms evolve? How do terms cross language boundaries? What is the relationship between terminology and knowledge engineering? What types of relation can be established between concepts beyond abstract (genus-species) and part-whole relation and how are these realized cross-linguistically? What can prototype theory tell us about the classification of terms and concepts? (Jenny Williams & Andrew Chesterman, 2004: 20)

第二节: 

第二节 86 The relationship of language to discourse and ideology is one of the more promising developments which linguistic stylistics has recently begun to address. While the social implications of semiotic structures such as genre and text are no doubt obvious, these are seen in more meaningful socio-textual terms only when considered within discursive practice. Discourse or the attitudinally determined mode of expression (e.g. feminist discourse, racist discourse) is thus particularly privileged as a carrier of ideological meanings. As Martin (1985) points out, when ideology is challenged, discourse becomes implicated in a number of ways: which discourse a group is able to use and which discourse a group chooses to use, where, when and how, are all matters of immense ideological significance. In this chapter, the aim is to examine the role of language in the expression of ideology and to discuss a number of micro-level of aspects of this kind of semiotic analysis. Semiotics is a dimension of context which subsumes the assumptions, presuppositions and conventions surrounding a given utterance and ultimately represents them as signs in constant interaction. For example, in a speech on immigration into Britain, it was interesting to observe how a politician, obviously operating within the dictates of a particular kind of discourse, constantly referred to ‘immigrants and their children’ as immigrants and their offspring. The utterance offspring has thus become a sign (a semiotic entity) in that it no longer simply means ‘children’ but has in addition taken on discourse values such as ‘legalistic’ or even ‘de-humanizing’ (Sykes 1985). (Basil Hatim, 2001: 174)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, each of which is composed of four sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause embedded in the predicative; the second is again a complex sentence, composed of adverbial clause of contrast and a main clause, in which there is an elliptic adverbial clause of time embedded; the third is actually a simple sentence while the fourth is also a complex sentence, composed of an adverbial clause of manner and a main clause, which in turn is composed of an adverbial clause of time and a secondary main clause, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by a colon; and the subject of the coordinate clause after the colon is composed of two coordinate clauses and three elliptic coordinate clauses. In the second paragraph, the first is again a simple sentence; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the third is again a complex sentence composed of a main clause and an object clause; and the last is also a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause.

Slide51: 

2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first two sentences are rather straightforward in structure without further complication while the last two each have a parenthetic structure put in brackets. In the second paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and the predicative is composed of two coordinate infinitive phrases; the predicate of the attributive clause in the second sentence is composed of two verb phrases, and in the clause, surrounding means concerned with; the third sentence begins again with a prepositional phrase followed by another and in it was interesting to observe…, it is the formal subject while to observe… is the real subject, and in the object clause, between a politician and constantly referred to…, there is a parenthetic structure realized as a present participle phrase. In the last sentence, there are embedded two parenthetic structures marked by the brackets and one unmarked parenthetic structure, that is, in addition.

Slide52: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first is a loose sentence; the second is a periodic sentence for the beginning with an adverbial clause; the third is again a periodic sentence for the embedding of a parenthetic structure in the brackets; the last is again a periodic sentence for the beginning with an adverbial clause, the beginning of the main clause with an adverbial clause and the embedding of a parenthetic structure in brackets. In the second paragraph, the first is a periodic sentence for the beginning with a prepositional phrase; the second is a loose sentence; the third is again a periodic sentence for the beginning of a prepositional phrase followed by another, the use of the formal subject to keep the real subject further back and the inclusion of a parenthetic structure in the object clause; and the last is also a periodic sentence for the inclusion of two parenthetic structures in the brackets. 2. Structural complication： Generally speaking, the selection is complicated in structure, for of the eight sentences, only two are simple in structure but they are both periodic sentences; again of the eight sentences, only two are loose in structure, but they are both complex sentences.

Slide53: 

3. Structural formality： All the sentences are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures, and therefore, the selection is formal in structure. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection parallel structures are frequently used, for example, discourse and ideology; genre and text; feminist discourse, racist discourse; which discourse a group is able to use and which discourse a group chooses to use, where, when and how; to examine the role of language in the expression of ideology and to discuss a number of micro-level of aspects of this kind of semiotic analysis; assumptions, presuppositions and conventions; subsumes the assumptions, presuppositions and conventions surrounding a given utterance and ultimately represents them as signs in constant interaction; immigrants and their children; immigrants and their offspring; no longer simply means ‘children’ but has in addition taken on discourse values such as ‘legalistic’ or even ‘de-humanizing’; and legalistic or even de-humanizing.

Slide54: 

5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples found be found as follows: such key terms as discourse, ideology, semiotics and so on are repeatedly used; semiotic and ideological are used as partial repetitions of semiotics and ideology respectively; socio- is used as a partial repetition of social; manner, way and mode are used as synonyms; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, relationship, language, discourse, ideology, promising, development, linguistic, stylistics, recently, address, social, implication, semiotic, structure, genre, obvious, socio-textual, consider, discursive, practice, attitudinally, determined, mode, expression, feminist, racist, particularly, privileged, ideological, challenge, implicated, matter, immense, significance, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 语言与话语和思想的关系，是一个更富有希望的发展趋势，是近年语言文体学家们开始谈论的话题。体裁和语篇之类的符号结构的社会涵义无疑是非常明显的，但只有将它们放在杂乱无章的社会实践中来考察，才能更清楚它们的社会语篇意义。话语或由态度决定的表达方式如女权主义者话语、种族主义者话语，由于能承载思想意义因而特别受到青睐。正如马丁（1985）所指出的，当思想受到挑战，话语就有了多方面的涵义：哪种话语哪一群人能够用，哪种话语哪一群人经常选用，什么地方，什么时候，用什么方式，都是些具有巨大思想意义的因素。 本章的目的是考察语言在表达思想中的作用，讨论这种符号分析的微观层面上的各个方面的一系列问题。符号学是语境的一维，包含有关某一语句的认可、预设、约定俗成，并最终代表它们作为符号在不停地进行交互作用。例如，在一次移民英国的发言中，我们有趣地看到某个英国政治家，很明显，在某一特定的话语的指令下运作，经常将“移民及其子女”称为“移民及其后代”。那个语词后代不再只具有子女的意义，除此之外，它获得了“法律的”甚至“非人类的”之类的话语值（萨克斯1985），因而成了一个符号（一个符号实体）。 Comments: The present translation is somewhat readable, coherent and authentic, and therefore, acceptable. However, there do exist some problems. For example, in语言与话语和思想的关系，是一个更富有希望的发展趋势，是近年语言文体学家们开始谈论的话题, the parts are not sufficiently compatible with each other; 哪种话语哪一群人能够用and哪种话语哪一群人经常选用sound clumsy; 本章的目的是考察语言在表达思想中的作用，讨论这种符号分析的微观层面上的各个方面的一系列问题does not convey clear ideas to the reader, and so on; and the translation of ideology into思想is challengeable.

Slide56: 

B) Translation 2: 语言与话语和意识形态的关系是近来语言文体学开始谈论的话题，是众多的喜人进展中的一大进展。符号结构如体裁和文本中的社会蕴含是明确无误的，但只有在杂乱无章的实践中予以思考，才能对社会蕴含用更富意义的社会语篇术语进行考察。因此，话语或由态度决定的表达方式（例如女权主义话语、种族主义话语）是意识形态意义的专用载体。正如马丁（1985）所指出的，如果对意识形态加以考察，话语就具有多重蕴含意义。哪种话语哪些人会用，哪种话语哪些人常用，何时、何地、如何选用，所有这些都具有巨大的意识形态意义。 本章旨在考察语言在表述意识形态中的作用，旨在讨论符号学分析中这类问题的众多的微观层面。符号学是语境理论的一维，包含与某一实际话语有关的假设、预设和常规蕴含，最终作为代表这些意义的符号不停地进行互动。例如，在一次有关向英国移民的讲话中，有趣地看到，一位警官明显是在某一特定话语的各项规则范围内说话的，他常常将“移民和孩子们”说成是“移民和幼仔”。因此，幼仔这一说法就成了一种符号（一种符号学实在），因为它不再仅指“孩子”，而且负载了话语价值，如“限于关涉法律时使用的”甚至“非人化的”意义（萨克斯1985）。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence and the last sentence are changed drastically. In addition, 女权主义话语、种族主义话语; 哪种话语哪些人会用and哪种话语哪些人常用are newly worded, and minor changes can be found ubiquitously. More important is that ideology and its cognate are translated into意识形态 and 意识形态的.

Slide57: 

C) Translation 3: 近来，语言文体学开始谈论语言与话语和意识形态的关系，成为前景可观的一大发展趋势。符号学结构如体裁和文本具有社会蕴含意义，无疑人所共知。但社会蕴含意义只有在杂乱无章的实践中予以考察，只有用更富意义的社会语篇术语来观照，才能显露出来。因此，话语或表示态度的表达形式，如女权主义者话语、种族主义者话语，是意识形态意义的特定载体。正如马丁（1985）指出的，如果诉诸于意识形态，就会发现话语具有多重蕴含意义。例如，什么人能够使用什么话语，什么人习惯使用什么话语，什么时候使用、什么地方使用、如何使用，所有这些课题就都具有巨大的意识形态意义。 本章旨在考察语言在表述意识形态中的作用，旨在讨论符号学框架内涉及语言表述意识形态的众多的微观层面。符号学是语境理论的一个层面，包含与讲话有关的假设、预设和常规蕴含，最终作为代表这些意义的符号不停地用于交际。例如，在一次涉及移民英国的讲话中，见到了这样的情况，饶有兴味。出入境管理处的一位警官常常将“移民和孩子们”说成是“移民和幼仔”。显然，他这样说是符合移民话语规则的。因此，幼仔就成了一种符号或一种符号体，因为它不仅指“孩子”，而且负载了话语价值，如“这是移民用语”甚至“不将孩子当人看待”的意义（萨克斯，1985）。 Comments: In the present translation, 语言文体学开始谈论语言与话语和意识形态的关系，成为前景可观的一大发展趋势；但社会蕴含意义只有在杂乱无章的实践中予以考察，只有用更富意义的社会语篇术语来观照，才能显露出来; 话语或表示态度的表达形式，如女权主义者话语、种族主义者话语，是意识形态意义的特定载体; 如果诉诸于意识形态，就会发现话语具有多重蕴含意义; 在一次涉及移民英国的讲话中，见到了这样的情况，饶有兴味; 出入境管理处的一位警官常常将“移民和孩子们”说成是“移民和幼仔”; 显然，他这样说是符合移民话语规则的, and others are substituted for the corresponding previous sentences with new wordings. In addition, the brackets are eliminated and the parenthetic structures concerned are included into the main body of the text.

Slide58: 

87 In terms of Skopostheorie, the viability of the brief depends on the circumstances of the target culture, not on the source culture. Since we have defined translation as a translational action involving a source text, the source is usually part of the brief. In terms of action theory, however, the agents (sender, receiver, initiator, translator) play the most important parts and it is problematic to speak of ‘the course text’ unless we really only mean source-language words or sentence structures. The meaning or function of a text is not something inherent in the linguistic signs; it cannot simply be extracted by anyone who knows the code. A text is made meaningful by its receiver and for its receiver. Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a ‘text’ is as many texts as there are receivers (cf. Nord 1992b:91). This dynamic concept of text meaning and function is common enough in modern theories of literary reception. Vermeer sums it up by saying that any text is just an ‘offer of information’ (cf. Vermeer 1982) from which each receiver selects the items they find interesting and important. Applying this concept to translation, we could say that a target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language (cf. Reise and Vermeer 1984: 67ff). (Christiane Nord, 2001: 31-32)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of seven sentences while the second is composed of three sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a simple sentence; the second is a complex sentence, composed of an adverbial clause of reason and a main clause; the third is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, of which the second has an adverbial clause of condition embedded, and it is in this sense that the sentence can be regarded as compound complex in structure. The fourth is again a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses loosely connected by a semi-colon, and in the second clause, there is an attributive clause embedded. Therefore, the sentence can be regarded as compound complex in structure. The fifth and the sixth are both simple sentences while the seventh is a complex sentence composed of a main clause and an object clause, in which there is an adverbial clause of comparison embedded. In the second paragraph, the first is a simple sentence; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause embedded in the prepositional phrase by saying …, and in the object clause, there is an attributive clause embedded beginning with the preposition from, in which there is another attributive clause further embedded. The third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; the third sentence also begins with a prepositional phrase, but together with the adverb however, and there is a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets; the sixth sentence also has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets and so dose the last sentence. In the second paragraph, the second sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets while the last sentence begins with a present participle phrase and has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets. But all the other sentences in the selection are free from additional complication.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first three and the last two are periodic sentences in that the first three sentences all begin with either a prepositional phrase (or together with an adverb) or an adverbial clause, and additionally, the third sentence has a parenthesis embedded in the brackets; the last two sentences each have a parenthesis embedded in the brackets. And the two sentences in the middle of the selection are both loose in structure. In the second paragraph, the first is a loose sentence while the other two are periodic in structure for the reason that the two sentences each have a parenthesis embedded in brackets, and additionally, the last sentence begins with a present participle phrase. 2. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures.

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3. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, on the circumstances of the target culture, not on the source culture; sender, receiver, initiator, translator; words or sentence structures; meaning or function; by its receiver and for its receiver; as many texts as there are receivers; interesting and important; and an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language.

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4. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: target culture is used in contrast with source culture; sender, receiver, initiator, translator are used as co-hyponyms of the agents; brief, translation, source, important, theory (or theories), receiver (or receivers) and so on are repeatedly used; translational is used as a partial repetition for translation; and so on. 5. Lexical formality： In the selection, formal words, including nominalizations, are ubiquitously used, for example, Skopostheorie, viability, depend, circumstances, target, culture, define, translation, trnaslational, action, involving, usually, theory, agents, sender, receiver, initiator, translator, important, problematic, structure, function, inherent, linguistic, sign, extract, code, meaningful, different, material, offer, and others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 用斯戈波理论的话说，指令的可行性决定于目的文化的环境，而不决定于源文化。由于我们将翻译定义为涉及源语文本的迻译行为，通常源语文本身就是指令的一部分。就行为理论而言，行为执行者（发送人、接受人、发起人、译者）起着最重要的作用。因此，说“源语文本”是有问题的除非我们的意思是指源语的词语或句子结构。文本的意义或功能不是语言符号本来就有的，不能简单地为知道这个代码系统的任何人所提取。本文的意义是接收者赋予的，是为接收者而存在的。不同的接收者（甚至处于不同时间的同一个接收者）会在文本提供的同一种语言材料中获得不同的意义。我们甚至可以说，一个“文本”有多少接收者就有多少不同的副本(参考诺德1992b:91)。 关于文本意义与功能的这种动态概念在现代文学接受理论中极其普遍。弗米尔对之进行了总结，说任何文本只是一种“信息提供物”（参考弗米尔1982），每个接收者从中选取他们认为有趣而重要的项目。将这种概念应用到翻译上，我们可以说，目的语文本是译者在目的文化和目的语言中围绕着别人在源文化和源语言中建构的信息提供物而建构的信息提供物（参考赖斯和弗米尔1984:67ff）。 Comments: By following the original closely, we have produced a translation characterized by bracketing parenthetic structures as they were in the original and by the use of such clumsy terms as 源文化; 源语文本; and 源. In addition, some sentences in the translation are too long, for example, 说“源语文本”是有问题的除非我们的意思是指源语的词语或句子结构; 不能简单地为知道这个代码系统的任何人所提取; and目的语文本是译者在目的文化和目的语言中围绕着别人在源文化和源语言中建构的信息提供物而建构的信息提供物.

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B) Translation 2: 斯戈波理论认为，指令的独立性依存于目的文化的环境，不依存于来源文化。我们一旦将翻译定义为涉及来源文本的翻译行动，那么，来源文本通常就成为指令的一部分。行动理论认为，参与者包括发送者、接受者、发起者和译者起最重要作用。如此看来，谈论来源文本是有问题的，除非真的指来源语言的词语或者句子结构。文本的意义或功能不是语言符号中固有的，不是知道代码的人都能从中提取的。文本的意义以读者为对象也取决于读者。不同的读者，甚至同一读者在不同的时候里从文本所提供的相同的语言材料中能提取不同的意义。甚至可以说，一个文本有多少人阅读，就有多少个副本。 文本的意义和功能的动态概念在现代文学接受理论中十分常见，弗米尔对之进行了总结，他说，任何文本只不过是“信息供给”（参考弗米尔1982），接受者可以从中选用感兴趣的重要选项。将这个概念应用于翻译，可以说，目的文本是译者利用目的文化与语言构成信息供给，这种信息是关于别人利用来源文化和语言构成的信息供给的。 Comments: In present translation, 来源文化; 来源文本; and来源, are used, compatible with 目的文化and other similar terms. In addition, 如此看来，谈论来源文本是有问题的，除非真的指来源语言的词语或者句子结构; 不是知道代码的人都能从中提取的; and目的文本是译者利用目的文化与语言构成信息供给，这种信息是关于别人利用来源文化和语言构成的信息供给的 are new translations. However, the greatest change lies in the deletion of brackets and the inclusion of the parenthetic structures concerned into the main body of the text.

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C) Translation 3: 按照斯戈波理论，指令是否独立不是来源文化决定的，而是目的文化的环境决定的。一旦将翻译视为为涉及来源文本的翻译行动，来源文本就成为指令的一部分。按照行动理论，发送者、接受者、发起者和译者等参与者的作用举足轻重。一般不提来源文本，除非是在讨论来源语言的词语或者句子结构。文本的意义或功能不是语言符号中固有的，不是知道代码就可以提取的。文本的意义取决于接受者，为接受者服务。同一种文本，相同的语言材料，接受者不同，理解起来，会见仁见智；同一个接受者所处时间不同，也会作不同的理解。甚至可以说，同一种文本，有多少人接受者，就有多少个副本。 文本的意义和功能是动态的，这个概念在现代文学接受理论中十分常见，对此，弗米尔进行过总结。他说，任何文本只不过是“信息源”（参考弗米尔1982），接受者如感兴趣，如认为重要，就可从中选用。对翻译而言，可以说，目的文本是译者利用目的文化与语言构成的信息源，这种信息源来源于别人利用来源文化和语言构成的信息源。 Comments: In present translation, 指令是否独立不是来源文化决定的，而是目的文化的环境决定的; 发送者、接受者、发起者和译者等参与者的作用举足轻重; 一般不提来源文本，除非是在讨论来源语言的词语或者句子结构；不是知道代码就可以提取的；同一种文本，相同的语言材料，不接受者不同，理解起来，会见仁见智；同一个接受者所处的时间不同，也会作不同的理解, and others are substituted for the corresponding previous parts with new structures and wordings.

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88 According to Sperber and Wilson (1986a), the crucial mental faculty that enables human beings to communicate with one another is the ability to draw inferences from people’s behavior. Looked at from the communicator’s end, his task is to produce a stimulus – verbal or otherwise – from which the audience can infer what he ‘means’, or, in the terms of relevance theory, what his informative intention is. Thus in the case of non-verbal communication, seeing that a colleague is looking for a seat in a fairly full seminar room, I might wave and point to a seat next to me; these movements would be the stimulus, and my informative intention would be that my colleague will infer from the stimulus I produced that there is a free seat next to me where he could sit down. The same is true of verbal stimuli; thus if someone asked me, ‘Can you tell me where the bus to Maidenhead leaves from?’, I might reply, ‘Sorry, I am a stranger here myself’, with the intention that the inquirer would infer from my answer that I am unable to supply the information he is looking for. (Ernst August Gutt, 2004: 24-25)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of three paragraphs, of which the first is composed of two sentences and the second and the third each are composed of a single sentence. In the first paragraph, the two sentences are both complex in structure in that the first sentence is composed of a main clause in whose subject there is an attributive clause embedded; and the second sentence is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause beginning with the preposition from, in which there are two coordinate object clauses further embedded. In the second paragraph, the sentence is composed of two coordinate clauses loosely connected by a semi-colon; in the first coordinate clause, there is an object clause embedded; and the second coordinate clause in turn is composed of two coordinate clauses, in the second of which the predicative is a nominal clause composed of a prepositional phrase and another object clause, and in the prepositional phrase, there is an attributive clause embedded while in the object clause, there is an adverbial clause of place embedded. In the third paragraph, the sentence is composed of two coordinate clauses loosely connected by a semi-colon, of which the second clause is composed of an adverbial clause of condition and a main clause followed by a prepositional phrase. In the conditional clause, there is an object clause with another object clause further embedded; in the main clause, there is an object clause embedded; and in the prepositional phrase, there is a nominal clause embedded in apposition to the noun intention, and the nominal clause is composed of a main clause and an object clause, where there is an attributive clause further embedded.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets; and the second sentence begins with a past participle phrase, and has a parenthetic structure embedded between the two dashes and another embedded between the two commas. The sentence in the second paragraph begins with an adverb and a prepositional phrase immediately followed by a present participle phrase. The sentence in the third paragraph has a conditional clause embedded, which serves as the beginning of the second coordinate clause and in the sentence, there are two quotations forming an adjacency pair in the form of question and answer.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the two sentences are periodic in structure for the beginning either with a prepositional phrase, together with the embedding of a parenthesis, or with a past participle phrase, together with two parentheses. The sentence in the second paragraph is periodic in structure for its complex beginning composed of an adverb, a prepositional phrase and a present participle phrase. In the third paragraph, the first coordinate clause is loose in structure while the second one begins with an adverb plus an adverbial clause of condition, thus periodic in structure. 2. Structural complication： From the grammatical analysis and the present analysis above, we can say that the selection is very complicated in sentence structure. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences in the selection are structurally formal in that they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures.

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4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are scarcely used, for example, verbal or otherwise and what he ‘means’, or…what his informative intention is the only one that we have discovered. 5. Lexical cohesive device： In terms of lexical cohesive device, examples could be found as follows: one another is used in relation to human beings, which is itself repeated; people and human beings are interchangeable noun phrases; communicate, communicator and communication are used as cognates; verbal or otherwise are used as antonyms; verbal, intention, and others are repeated, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： In the selection, formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, according, crucial, mental, faculty, enable, communicate, ability, inference, communicator, behavior, produce, stimulus, verbal, otherwise, audience, infer, relevance, theory, informative, intention, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 根据斯勃勃和维尔森（1986a）的说法，使人类能够互相交流的关键的心灵能力就是从别人的行为举止中进行推导的能力。从交际者的角度看，他的任务是产生刺激物，言语的或非言语的，听者能够从这个刺激物中推导出他的意图，或者用关联理论的术语来说，能够推导出他的信息意图。 因此，在非言语交际中，看到一位同事在一间挤满了人的教室里寻找座位，我可能向他招招手，又指指旁边的座位，这些手势就是刺激物，我的信息意图是，我的同事从我所产生的刺激物会推导出我的旁边有一个他可以坐在那儿的空座位。 言语刺激物也是这样。因此如果有人问我，“你能告诉我到郿顿黑德的车子从何地出发吗？”我可能会回答，“抱歉，我对这个地方很陌生”，意图是，问路的人从我的回答中可以推导出，我难以提供他正在寻求的信息。 Comments: By following the original strictly in terms of both vocabulary and structure, we have generated a readable, coherent and authentic translation. However, the translation is not free from problems. For example, although the reader can infer what 交际者means by contrasting it with听者, the meaning of the term is not explicit or precise enough. In the translation, 言语的或非言语的is used as a parenthesis. But taking into consideration that parenthetic structures are not used as frequently in Chinese as in English, this way of translation the phrase could be improved on. 教室is a suitable term when examined in isolation. But when examined in connection with seminar, it may present a problem. By the way, the translation of Maidenhead into 郿顿黑德is perhaps not an appropriate choice.

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B) Translation 2: 斯勃勃和维尔森（1986a）认为，心智能使人类相互交流，关键在于能从人的言行中推测意义。从说话人的角度看，他旨在产生刺激，言语的或非言语的，受话人能从中推测出他“说话的意义”，或者用关联理论的术语来说，能推测出他的信息意图。 因此，进行非言语交际时，看到同事在听众满座的屋子里找座位听讲座，我可能指着旁边的座位朝他招招手。这些手势就是刺激，我的信息意图是，我的同事会从我给予的刺激中推测出他可以坐到我旁边的一个空位子上。 言语刺激也是这样。因此，如果有人问我，“你能告诉我到梅顿希德的公交车从什么地方发车？”我可能回答说，“很抱歉，我不是本地人”，我的意图是，问话人从我的回答中可以推测出我难以提供他所需要的信息。 Comments: In the present translation, except perhaps “说话的意义”, which, taking into consideration of what is implied in言语的或非言语的, should be replaced by something better, all the other above -mentioned problems are solved. In addition, 言行is used to substitute for 行为举止; 看到同事在听众满座的屋子里找座位听讲座，我可能指着旁边的座位朝他招招手and这些手势就是刺激，我的信息意图是，我的同事会从我给予的刺激中推测出他可以坐到我旁边的一个空位子上are substituted for the previous translations, and so on.

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C) Translation 3: 斯勃勃和维尔森（1986a）认为，大脑能使人相互交流，关键在于能从人的言行中推测意义。对发送信号的人而言，他的工作是发出言语或非言语信号，使受话人从中推测出他“意旨”。在用关联理论看来，就是推测出他的信息意图。 因此，在非言语交际场合，看到同事来参加讨论，会议室已经坐满了，他在寻找座位，我会指着身旁的座位朝他招手。我的手势就是信号，其信息意图是，那位同事会从我的信号中推测出，我身旁有个空位，他可以坐到那儿。 言语信号也是这样。因此，如有人问我，“请问，到梅顿希德的公交车从何处出发？”我可能回答说，“很抱歉，我不是本地人”，其交际意图是，问话人从我的回答中可以推测出我无法提供他需要的信息。 Comments: Compared with the previous translation, in the present translation, the following improvements have been made: first, in因此，在非言语交际场合，看到同事来参加讨论，会议室已经坐满了，他在寻找座位，我会指着身旁的座位朝他招手, the long sentence is the previous translation is chopped into shorter clauses for better readability; and 会议室is used in connection with参加讨论; second, 言语或非言语is now used as a modifier; 对发送信号的人而言，在关联理论看来，意旨and others are now used as substitutes for the previous counterparts; third, 请问，到梅顿希德的公交车从何处出发？and很抱歉，我不是本地人are used to increase the authenticity of the translation. Moreover, 信号is used to translate stimulus, possibly a problematic translation.

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89 The previous section was designed to provide the reader with a basis for understanding some of Derrida’s most important points regarding language and meaning, particularly as they pertain to translation. Hopefully, that discussion will also serve as a basis for reading this section, which addresses language and translation. Chapter 4 takes up the concepts of decision, intention, and communication, each of which has played a significant role in recent thinking about translation. Through close examination of these concepts and their implications, I attempt to show how their deconstruction opens onto a much expanded significance for translation. Chapter 5 provides extensive, minutely detailed examples of Derrida’s translators at work. The purpose of this chapter is not to demonstrate what a deconstructive translation process is. As will quickly become apparent, Derrida’s translators adopt a variety of methods that are not always compatible with each other. These examples provide forceful proof that deconstruction is not a method. As will also become apparent, however, these translators are consistent in way they think about language, the problem and the process of translation, and the implications of their own performances as they manoeuvre in paradoxical non-space between the ‘critical’ and the deconstructive. In the course of discussing these translators, I will take up topics, such as Derrida’s work with ‘restricted’ and ‘general’ economy, that are of particular importance to translation theory. (Kathleen Davis, 2004: 48)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first in turn consists of four sentences while the second consists of six sentences. In the first paragraph, all the sentences are complex in structure. The first sentence is composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of time; the second sentence is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the third is again composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; and the fourth sentence is composed of a main clause and an object clause. In the second paragraph, the first is actually a simple sentence while all the others are complex in structure. Specifically speaking, the second sentence is composed of a main clause and an object clause; the third sentence is composed of an adverbial clause of reason and a main clause; the fourth sentence is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the fifth sentence is composed of an adverbial clause of reason and a main clause, in which there is an attributive clause embedded with an adverbial clause of time further embedded; the last sentence is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the second sentence begins with an adverb and the fourth sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; in the second paragraph, the third sentence begins with an adverbial clause; the fifth also begins with an adverbial clause and the last begins with a prepositional phrase. However, all the other sentences do not present such complication and all the sentences in the selection do not contain any parenthetic structure.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the second and the fourth sentences are periodic in structure; in the second paragraph, the third, the fifth and the sixth sentences are periodic in structure; and all the periodic sentences in the selection are periodic for the beginning either with a prepositional phrase or with an adverbial clause without exception. In the selection, all the other sentences are loose in structure. 2. Structural complication： Except for the first sentence in the second paragraph, they are all complicated for their subordinate or periodic structure or both. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences in the selection are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures. Therefore, they are all structurally formal. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, language and meaning; language and translation; decision, intention, and communication; these concepts and their implications; extensive, minutely detailed; as will quickly become apparent…, and as will also become apparent…; language, the problem and the process of translation, and the implications of their own performances; the ‘critical’ and the deconstructive; and ‘restricted’ and ‘general’.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: the previous section, Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 are used in an ordered series; Derrida’s, language, translation, examples, deconstruction, deconstructive, and others are repeated; in Line 2 of the first paragraph, they is used to refer to Derrida’s most important points; reading is used as a partial repetition of the reader; still in the first paragraph, the repeated their is used to refer to these concepts; deconstructive is repeatedly used as a partial repetition for deconstruction, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： In the selection, formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, previous, section, designed, provide, understanding, important, regarding, language, particularly, pertain, translation, hopefully, discussion, serve, address, concept, decision, intention, communication, significant, recent, examination, implication, attempt, deconstruction, expanded, significance, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 前面部分的目的在于为读者理解德里达有关语言和意义的某些重点打下一个基础，特别是涉及翻译的那些重点。希望，上面的讨论也能作为阅读本节的基础。本节是讨论语言和翻译的。第四章讨论了决策、意图和交际等概念，这些概念在近来的关于翻译的思考中有重要作用。深入地探讨这些概念及其涵义，我将试图展示对这些概念的解构以揭示出对翻译的更加广阔的意义。 第五章提供了德里达关于译者的功能的广泛而详尽的例子。本章的目的不是展示解构翻译的过程。很快就会明白，德里达的译者采用了许多翻译方法，彼此之间并不始终协调。这些例子提供的有力证据表明，解构不是一种方法。同样，很快就会明白，这些译者在“临界”与“解构”的悖论式的非空间之间试探，始终坚持他们对语言的看法，对翻译的问题与过程的看法，对他们自己的翻译实践的涵义的看法。在讨论这些译者的过程中，我将讨论对翻译理论极具重要性的话题，如德里达关于“有限简约”与“通用简约”方面的著作。 Comments: By following the original closely, we have produced a translation with acceptable readability, coherence and authenticity. However, 前面的部分and 本节are wrong translations since the book from which the present selection is chosen falls into two sections each composed of three chapters. Therefore, the above-mentioned terms should be understood in that light. In addition, 临界is apparently not compatible nor contrastive with解构; and the meanings for有限简约and通用简约are vague enough. Of course, some of the sentences could also be reorganized, for example, 深入地探讨这些概念及其涵义，我将试图展示对这些概念的解构以揭示出对翻译的更加广阔的意义; 这些译者在“临界”与“解构”的悖论式的非空间之间试探，始终坚持他们对语言的看法，对翻译的问题与过程的看法，对他们自己的翻译实践的涵义的看法; and在讨论这些译者的过程中，我将讨论对翻译理论极具重要性的话题，如德里达关于“有限简约”与“通用简约”方面的著作.

Slide81: 

B) Translation 2: 前一篇旨在为读者理解德里达关于语言和意义的重要观点、尤其是理解与翻译有关的重要观点提供一个基础。本篇讨论语言和翻译，我希望，上面的讨论也能为阅读本篇提供一个基础。第四章讨论决策、意图和交际等概念，这些概念在近来有关翻译的思考中举足轻重。通过仔细考察这些概念和它们的蕴涵意义，我将试图展示这些概念的解构如何为翻译揭示出更加辽阔的前景。 第五章提供德里达的译者们如何翻译的例子，范围广泛、内容详尽。本章的目的不在于揭示解构翻译的过程。很快就会明白，德里达的译者们采用了多种做样的译法，这些译法并不总是互不抵触的。可这些例子有力地证明，解构不是一种翻译方法。但是，我们很快会明白，当他们在“批判”和“解构”之间的悖论式的非空间中摸索时，这些译者对语言、对翻译的问题和过程、对他们自己的翻译实践的蕴涵意义不断进行思考，其思考的方式是始终如一的。在讨论这些译者的过程中，我会议论对翻译理论极富意义的话题，如用“有限”经济原则和“通用”经济原则讨论德里达的著作。 Comments: In the present translation, the above-mentioned weak points are eliminated. However, 用“有限”经济原则和“通用”经济原则讨论德里达的著作implies that restricted economy and general economy are raised by the present author. This is not true, since the two terms are both put forward by no one else but Derrida himself.

Slide82: 

C) Translation 3: 上篇简要地介绍了德里达的某些重要观点，尤其是那些与翻译密切相关的观点，旨在为读者理解这些观点打下基础。本篇讨论语言和翻译，我希望，上篇的讨论也能为阅读本篇打下基础。第四章讨论决策、意图和交际等概念，这些概念在近期的翻译理论研究中举足轻重。我将仔细考察这些概念和它们的涵义，旨在展示解构这些概念就能为翻译揭示出广阔意义。 第五章提供信奉德里达理论的译者们如何翻译的例子，范围广泛、内容详尽。目的不在于揭示解构翻译的过程。读者很快就会看到，信奉德里达理论的译者们使用的翻译方法是多种多样的，不总是互不抵触的。这些例子有力地说明，解构不是翻译方法。但是，读者很快也会看到，当他们在“批判”和“解构“之间的悖论式的狭缝中探索时，这些译者对语言、对翻译的问题和过程、对他们自己的翻译实践的涵义不断进行思考，思考的方式是始终如一的。在讨论这些译者的过程中，我将讨论对翻译理论具有特殊意义的话题，如讨论德里达的著作连同他提出的“有限”经济和“通用”经济等概念。 Comments: In the present translation, the last problem is solved. In addition, wordings are changed in such cases as the following so that the ideas are more clearly expressed: (1) 上篇简要地介绍了德里达的某些重要观点，尤其是那些与翻译密切相关的观点，旨在为读者理解这些观点打下基础; (2) 第四章讨论决策、意图和交际等概念，这些概念在近期的翻译理论研究中举足轻重; (3) 我将仔细考察这些概念和它们的涵义，旨在展示解构这些概念就能为翻译揭示出广阔意义；(4) 这些例子有力地说明，解构不是翻译方法; (5) 当他们在“批判”和“解构“之间的悖论式的狭缝中探索时，这些译者对语言、对翻译的问题和过程、对他们自己的翻译实践的涵义不断进行思考，思考的方式是始终如一的; and (6) 在讨论这些译者的过程中，我将讨论对翻译理论具有特殊意义的话题，如讨论德里达的著作连同他提出的“有限”经济和“通用”经济等概念.

Slide83: 

90 Feminist re-translations of parts of the Bible have attracted a certain amount of critical attention, both within and beyond the Christian church: other rewritings of literary texts have had much less exposure to criticism. It is rare to find studies that juxtapose and compare a number of translations of one particular text in order to understand the ideological and contextual influences that have made the difference. Recent work by Antoine Berman (1995) is a rare exception. The issue of gender has also motivated a number of such studies, two of which shall serve as examples of the importance of gender awareness in contemporary translation criticism. These studies take two women poets as their subjects: Sappho and Louise Labe. Sappho, a Greek lyric poet whose work was performed to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument, lived and wrote during the ‘archaic period’ of Greek civilization, some time during the seventh or sixth centuries B. C. Louise Labe, the well-educated daughter of a rope maker, lived and wrote in Lyon, France in the first half of the sixteenth century. While Sappho’s work consists almost exclusively of fragments with only 700 lines remaining out of an opus of some 500 songs, Louise Labe’s sonnets, published in 1555, are still widely available. Feminists’ interest in these poets is no coincidence; though their texts lie about 2000 years apart, both Sappho and Labe speak in strong, individual voices that clearly belong to women; they produce bold expressions of love, sexual arousal, friendship and anger, from a woman’s point of view. They can thus be read as part of the lineage of women writers and poets. (Luise von Flotow, 2004: 57-58)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection consists of two paragraphs, of which the first in turn consists of four sentences while the second paragraph consists of six sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by a colon; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause, which has another attributive clause further embedded; the third is actually a simple sentence while the fourth is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause. In the second paragraph, the first is actually a simple sentence; the second can be regarded as a complex sentence, composed of a clause and an appositive nominal phrase with an attributive clause embedded; the third is again a simple sentence; the fourth is again a complex sentence, composed of an adverbial clause of comparison and a main clause; the fifth sentence is composed of three coordinate clauses loosely connected by semi-colons, the second of which contains an adverbial clause of concession, and in this sense, the sentence can be regarded as compound complex in structure; and the fix is again a simple sentence.

Slide85: 

2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence contains a parenthetic structure before the colon; in the second sentence, it is the formal subject while to find studies that… is the real subject; and the third sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded in brackets. In the second paragraph, in the second sentence, the appositive nominal phrase together with the attributive clause serves as a parenthesis; in the third sentence, there is also an appositive nominal phrase serving as a parenthesis; and the main clause of the fourth sentence contains a past participle phrase serving as a parenthesis. All the other sentences do not present such structural complication except that the second coordinate clause of the fifth sentence begins with an adverbial clause.

Slide86: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first three sentences can be regarded as periodic in structure in that the first sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded before the colon; the formal subject in the second sentence keeps the real subject further back and the third sentence contains a short parenthesis. In the second paragraph, the sentences from the second to the fourth are periodic in structure in that the second and the third sentences each have a parenthetic structure embedded between the subject and the predicate; the fourth sentence begins with an adverbial clause. In addition, the fifth sentence has the second coordinate clause in periodic structure beginning with an adverbial clause. But all the other sentences are loose in structure. 2. Structural complication： Most of the sentences in the selection are complicated in structure for the subordination or periodicity.

Slide87: 

3. Structural formality： All the sentences are formal in structure in that they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, within and beyond; juxtapose and compare; ideological and contextual; Sappho and Louise Labe; Sappho, a Greek lyric poet whose work was performed to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument, lived and wrote during the ‘archaic period’ of Greek civilization…, and Louise Labe, the well-educated daughter of a rope maker, lived and wrote in Lyon, France in the first half of the sixteenth century; strong, individual; love, sexual arousal, friendship and anger; and writers and poets.

Slide88: 

5. Lexical cohesive device： Instances can easily be found, for example, the Christian Church is used in connection with the Bible; criticism is used as a partial repetition for critical; translation is used as a partial repetition for retranslation; criticism, translation, text (in singular or plural form), Sappho (used singularly or in combination with Labe), Labe (used singularly or in combination with Sappho) and so on are repeatedly used, and there are other such examples. 6. Lexical formality： In the selection, formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, feminist, re-translation, attract, certain, amount, critical, attention, Christian, church, rewriting, literary, exposure, criticism, juxtapose, compare, translation, particular, understand, ideological, contextual, influence, difference, exception, gender, motivate, example, importance, awareness, contemporary, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 女权运动者们重新翻译的《圣经》的部分章节，在基督教内外招致了批评。对别的文学文本的改写没有遭到如此强烈的批评。很难看到有研究将某个特定的文本的各种不同的译文放在一起进行比较，以弄清不同的思想与语境的影响。安托尼.波曼的近期著作是个例外。性别问题也引发了许多类似的研究，其中两项将作为当代翻译批评中注意性别的重要例子。 这些研究以两位女士为研究对象：萨佛和路易斯.拉蓓。萨佛是希腊抒情诗人，她的诗作曾在弦乐的伴奏下演唱，她在希腊文明的古代时期生活与创作，大约在公元前七世纪或六世纪。路易斯.拉蓓是一位绳索生产者的女儿，受过良好教育，于十六世纪前半页在法国里昂生活与创作。萨佛的作品几乎都是支离破碎的，有700行残存在一本有500首左右的歌剧集里，而路易斯.拉蓓的十四行诗于1555年出版，现在仍俯拾即是。女权主义者们对这两位诗人感兴趣不是偶然的，虽然她们的诗作相距2000年左右。萨佛和拉蓓都用强有力的富有个性的声音吟唱，很明显，这种声音是属于女性的。她们站在妇女的立场上，大胆地表达爱情、性感、友谊和愤怒。因此，她们的诗作可以作为女作家、女诗人的传统的一部分来阅读。 Comments: By following the original strictly, we have produced a translation with the following problems: (1) 招致批评and遭到如此强力的批评are not appropriate expressions to use in such a context, for the two verbs do not necessarily carry derogatory implications; (2) the idea in很难看到有研究将某个特定的文本的各种不同的译文放在一起进行比较，以弄清不同的思想与语境的影响is not clearly presented; (3) the translation of萨佛和路易斯.拉蓓。萨佛是希腊抒情诗人，她的诗作曾在弦乐的伴奏下演唱，她在希腊文明的古代时期生活与创作，大约在公元前七世纪或六世纪。路易斯.拉蓓是一位绳索生产者的女儿，受过良好教育，于十六世纪前半页在法国里昂生活与创作is problematic in that first, there are conventional translations for the two names; second, rope-making at the time was a skill or technique; (4) 现在仍俯拾即是is not a suitable expression to translate widely available here.

Slide90: 

B) Translation 2: 女权主义者重新翻译了《圣经》的某些章节，引起了基督教内外批评家们的广泛关注。重新翻译别的文学作品，没有引起批评界如此广泛的关注。但很少看到，有将某一特定作品的多种翻译摆在一起进行比较，以便弄懂其内容和结构上的本质区别的。安特万.波曼（1995）的最近之作是绝无仅有。性别问题也引起了研究者的广泛兴趣，下面将提供两个重要的研究实例，从中可以看出当代翻译批评界对这个问题的关注。 这两项研究，以两位女诗人作为它们的话题：萨福和路易斯.拉贝。萨福是希腊抒情诗人，她的作品曾在弦乐伴奏下吟唱。她的生活和创作年代是在希腊文明的“原古时期”，大约在公元前第七或第六世纪。路易斯.拉贝是制绳工的女儿，受过良好教育，于十六世纪前半叶生活与创作于法国里昂。萨福的著作，总共约500首曲子，残缺不全，只有700行存留于世。路易斯.拉贝的十四行诗发表于1555年，现今仍广为流传。女权主义者们对这两位诗人感兴趣不是偶然的。虽然她们的诗作相隔两千年左右，萨福和拉贝都以明显属于女性的强有力的、富有个性的声音吟唱。站在妇女的立场上，她们都大胆地表述爱情、性感、友谊和愤怒。因此，二人的作品作为女作家和女诗人的传世之作的一部分而受到青睐。 Comments: Improvements are made on the above-mentioned points. However, some expressions are still awkward, for example, 最近之作; 在弦乐伴奏下吟唱; 制绳工的女儿; 大胆地表述, and the like. In addition, some sentences are somewhat too long.

Slide91: 

C) Translation 3: 女权主义者重译了《圣经》的某些章节，在基督教内外引起了广泛批评，而重译别的文学作品，从未引起过如此多的批评。将某一作品的多种译文摆在一起进行比较，以便弄清内容和结构上的本质区别，这样的研究实属罕见。安特万.波曼的新作（1995）是绝无仅有。性别也成了比较研究的热门话题，下面将提供两个重要的研究范例，以说明当代翻译批评对这个问题的重视。 这两项研究，以两位女诗人为课题：萨福和路易斯.拉贝。萨福是希腊抒情诗人，作品曾付诸管弦。她生活、创作于希腊文明的“原古时期”，大约在公元前七世纪或六世纪。路易斯.拉贝是制绳艺人的女儿，受过良好教育，于十六世纪前半叶生活、创作于法国里昂。萨福的作品总共约500首歌词，残缺不全，只有700行残存于世。路易斯.拉贝的作品为十四行诗，发表于1555年，现今仍不绝于市。女权主义者们对这两位诗人倾注心血不是偶然的。萨福和拉贝的诗作虽相隔两千年左右，但显然都以女性的声音吟唱，强劲有力，富于个性。她们都站在妇女的立场上，大胆地吟颂爱情、性感、友情和愤懑。因此，作为女作家、女诗人的传世之作，二人的作品都倍受青睐。 Comments: In producing the present translation, following measures were taken: (1) neutral expressions are used in some cases, for example, 引起了广泛批评; 从未引起过如此多的批评; and contrarily, attitudinal terms are used in other cases, for example, 热门话题; 制绳艺人; 吟唱; 吟颂; 青睐; (2) expressions with more precise meanings are used, for example, 本质区别; 比较研究; 作品曾付诸管弦; 共约500首歌词; 不绝于市; 倾注心血; (3) three和s are deleted and the special punctuation for marking pause is used in their stead the more rapid rhythm; (4) in some cases, subjects are fronted for authenticity in the Chinese sense.

Exercises:: 

Exercises: 86 However, Translation Studies as a discipline is in many ways still in a state of flux. Translation can be seen as a point of intersection between many different academic subjects; it is an area in which many other disciplines have legitimately expressed an interest, and conversely one which has provided its own experts with insights which can profitably be shared elsewhere. There is for example a considerable exchange of knowledge, insights and methodologies between Translation Studies and fields as diverse as literary studies, philosophy, anthropology and linguistics; indeed, such is the level of intellectual cross-fertilization that some writers have suggested that the field should be known as an interdiscipline (see Snell-Hornby, 1991, 1994). Similarly, there are a number of equally legitimate reasons which scholars have had for pursuing an interest in Translation Studies. For example, some are motivated by highly practical concerns, such as the need to provide future translators or interpreters with training which is of the highest possible quality, the desire to raise the professional profile of translators and interpreters, or the wish to develop increasingly powerful machine translation systems; others, on the other hand, simply seek to provide ever more accurate and comprehensive explanations for certain phenomena in the world about us, without being primarily concerned with the possible practical applications which may accrue. Thus goals and objectives can vary considerably within the discipline. Of course, Translation Studies has been enriched by dint of possessing such a multi-faceted nature. However, at the same time this very nature has meant that there is still considerable lack of agreement on the irreducible minimum of concepts which should form the foundation on which to build; added to this is the fact that Translation Studies is a relatively new discipline which is in many ways still “finding its feet”. (Mark Shuttleworth &Moira Cowie, 2004: v-vi)

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87 This book deals with those in the middle, the men and women who do not write literature, but rewrite it. It does so because they are, at present, responsible for the general reception and survival of works of literature among non-professional readers, who constitute the great majority of readers in our global culture, to at least the same, if not greater extent than the writers themselves. What is usually referred to as “the intrinsic value” of a work of literature plays much less of a part in this than is usually assumed. As is well known, the poetry of John Donne remained relatively unknown and unread from a few decades after his death until his rediscovery by T. S. Eliot and other modernists. Yet it is safe to assume tat the “intrinsic value” of his poems must have been the same all along. Similarly, many “forgotten” feminist classics originally published in the twenties, thirties, and forties of our century have been republished in the late seventies and eighties. The actual content of the novels was, presumably, no less feminist then than it is now, since we are dealing with exactly the same texts. The reason why the republished feminist classics are not forgotten all over again lies not in the intrinsic value of the texts themselves, or even the (possible) lack of thereof, but in the fact that they are now being published against the background of an impressive array of feminist criticism, which advertises, incorporates, and supports them. (André Lefevere, 2004: 1-2)

Slide94: 

88 A Natural Equivalent The best translation does not sound like a translation. Quite naturally one cannot and should not make the Bible sound as if it happened in the next town ten years ago, for the historical context of the Scriptures is important, and one cannot remake the Pharisees and Sadducees into present-day religious parties, nor does one want to, for one respects too much the historical setting of the incarnation. In other words, a good translation of the Bible must not be a “cultural translation.” Rather, it should exhibit in its grammatical and stylistic forms any trace of awkwardness of strangeness. That is to say, it should studiously avoid “translationese” – formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and the impact of the message. The Closest Equivalent A conscientious translator will want the closest natural equivalent. It has been argued, for example, that in present-day English a natural equivalent of “demon-possessed” would be “mentally distressed.” This might be regarded by some as a natural equivalent, but it is certainly not the “closest equivalent.” Moreover, “mentally distressed” is a cultural reinterpretation which does not take seriously the cultural outlook of the people of Biblical times. (More will be said later (p.134) about the differences between a linguistic and a natural translation.) (Eugen A. Nida & Charles R. Taber, 2004: 12-13)

Slide95: 

89 Translation theory goes hand in hand with translation methodology at every stage, so that it acts as a body of reference both for the translation process procedure and for translation criticism. Since translation theory is applied to a variety of texts, and is not basically concerned with comparing language systems, its theorizing function consists of identifying a general or particular problem (say) how to translate oikeuskansleri, eduskunta, nimismies (Finnish), enumerating the various options, relating them to the LT text and reader, proposing a solution and then discussing the generality of the problem for future use. It is an applied and interrelated discipline, even if it is far from being wholly applied linguistics. Certain theoretical problems, such as what constitutes translation equivalence, variance or invariance, the ideal unit of translation, or even the process of translation accompanied by diagrams and logical symbols, appear to me now to be not very profitable unless they are related to one language function informing a group of text-types. As I see it, any talk of a single translation theory, or of one semantic theory for that matter, is a waste of time. Translation theory is eclectic; it draws its material from many sources. Like meaning or translation, it embraces a whole network of relations. At the same time, translation theory, precisely because it is bound up with methodology (a plan either for translation practice or for translation criticism runs through the entire preceding paper), goes into areas beyond any linguistics: the decision on the quality of a SL text; the arguments in favor of or against various procedures for translating institutional or cultural terms; the translator’s use of punctuation; question marks, colons, inverted commas and italics; the criteria for misprints; the gray area between evidence and intuition and taste; and particularly, the training in a sense of priority, of what is important and unimportant in the sense and sounds of a text – I doubt whether this has anything much to do with linguistics. (Peter Newmark, 2001: 37)

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90 First, the translator must understand to perfection the meaning and the subject matter of the author he translates. If he understands this he will never be obscure in his translation and if the author he translates is in no way obscene, he will be able to make him easily and perfectly intelligible. The second point required in translation is that the translator should know the language of the author he translates to perfection and that he should have achieved the same excellence in the language he wants to translate into. In that way he will neither violate nor denigrate the splendor of one language or the other. You must understand that every language has its own characteristics, and therefore its diction, its patterns of speech, its subtleties, and its power must be translated accordingly. …. The third point is that when you translate you should not enter into slavery to the point of rendering word for word. Whoever translates in this way does so because his mind is poor and deficient. If he possesses the qualities mentioned above (and a good translator must possess them) he will work with sentences and not care about the order of the words, and he will see to it that the author’s intention is expressed while miraculously preserving the characteristics of both languages. … The forth rule I want to offer here must be observed with greater diligence in languages that have not yet become established in the field of art than in others. I would call the following languages not yet established in the field of art: French, Italian, Spanish, German, English, and other vulgar tongues. If you translate a Latin book into one of these languages (even into French), you should not usurp words which are too close to Latin or have been little used in the past. Be satisfied with common usage and do not foolishly introduce novelties spawned by curiosity which can only be called reprehensible. … (André Lefevere, 2004: 27-28)

第三节: 

第三节 91 Because of the many discrepancies between meanings and structures of different languages, some persons have insisted that translating is impossible, and yet more and more translating is done and done well. Those who insist that translating is impossible are usually concerned with some of the more marginal features of figurative language and complex poetic structures. The use of figurative language is universal, but the precise figures of speech in one language rarely match those in another. It is true that in some languages one cannot say “My God”, because native speakers insist that no one can “possess” God, but a person can speak about “the God I worship” or “the God to whom I belong.” Translating is simply doing the impossible well, regardless of the objections of such famous authors as Goethe, Schleiermacher, and Ortega y Gasset, who insisted that translating is impossible and yet did not hesitate to have their own writing translated (Guttinger 1963). (Eugen A, Nida, 2001: 2-3)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of three sentences while the second is composed of two sentences. In the first paragraph, the first is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses; the second sentence is complex in structure, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause embedded in the subject, and the attributive clause in turn has an object clause further embedded; and the third is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses. In the second paragraph, the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and a subject clause which is in turn composed of two coordinate clauses connected by but, and the first coordinate clause is composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of reason while in the second coordinate clause, there are two coordinate nominal phrases each with an attributive clause further embedded. The second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an adjective phrase, which in turn has an attributive clause embedded.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; and the subject and the predicate is separated far apart by the attributive clause with the embedded object clause; in the second paragraph, the first sentence has it serve as the formal subject and the nominal clause as the real subject; and the second sentence ends, as mentioned in the analysis before, with an adjective phrase which takes an attributive clause whose predicate is composed of two coordinate finite verb phrases.

Slide100: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first sentence is periodic in structure; the subject of the second sentence is complex in structure and keeps the major information of the sentence for some length; the third is a loose sentence pure and simple. In the second paragraph, the first is a periodic sentence for the substitution of the formal subject for the real subject while the second sentence, taking a long trailing, is loose in structure. 2. Structural complication： All the five sentences are structurally complicated as revealed in the grammatical analysis. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures, and therefore, they are all formal in structure.

Slide101: 

4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, meanings and structures; more and more; done and done; some persons have insisted that translating is impossible, and who insist that translating is impossible; marginal features of figurative language and complex poetic structures; in one language, and in another; “the God I worship” or “the God to whom I belong”; Goethe, Schleiermacher, and Ortega y Gasset; and insisted that translating is impossible and yet did not hesitate to have their own writing translated. 5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: language is repeated many times either in singular or plural form; translating, structures, figurative, one, God, impossible, and others are repeatedly used; the structure translating is impossible is repeated three times; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, discrepancy, structure, different, language, person, insist, translating, impossible, usually, concerned, marginal, feature, figurative, complex, poetic, universal, precise, figures of speech, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 由于不同语言的意义和结构之间存在许多差异，有些人坚持认为，翻译是不可能的。然而越来越多的翻译已经完成了，而且完成得很好。那些坚持认为翻译是不可能的人通常关注的是形象语言和复杂的诗歌结构这些更边缘的特征中的某些东西。使用形象语言是很普遍的，一种语言中的修辞格与另一种语言中的修辞格很少匹配。 的确，在有些语言中，人们不能说“我的上帝”，因为操本族语的人坚持认为，没有人能“拥有”上帝；但是能谈论“我崇拜的上帝”或“我属于他的那个上帝”。翻译就是将不可能做的事做好，而不顾歌德、施莱艾尔马赫、奥尔特加－加塞特等著名作家的反对。他们坚持认为翻译是不可能的，但都毫不犹豫地将自己的作品翻译成外文（辜廷格尔，1963）。 Comments: By following the original strictly, we have produced a translation with acceptable readability, coherence and authenticity. To speak boldly, the translation is acceptable, for it is what we usually see. However, if we are particular, problems could be found. For example, some sentences in the translation are too long. A case in point is the second sentence in the translation. In addition, some ideas are not made sufficiently explicit. For example, what do we mean by 很少匹配?

Slide103: 

B) Translation 2: 语言不同，意义和结构差异甚多，因此，有人始终认为，翻译是不可能的。然而翻译活动日渐增多，翻译作品日臻完善。认为翻译是不可能的人通常看到的是某些形象语言和复杂的诗歌结构，然而这些是语言的边缘的特征。形象语言广为使用，语言的修辞格彼此不同，难以对号入座。 的确，有些语言不说“我的上帝”，因为那儿的人认为，没人“拥有”上帝；但可以说“我所崇拜的上帝”或“我所属于的上帝”。翻译是明知做不好而去做，因而遭到歌德、施莱艾尔马赫、奥尔特加－加塞特等著名作家的反对。然而，他们虽坚持认为翻译是不可能的，却都毫不犹豫地将自己的作品翻译成外文（辜廷格尔，1963）。 Comments: In the present translation, 语言不同，意义和结构差异甚多, a cause-and-effect structure, is substituted for the previous; and substituted for the previous is also翻译活动日渐增多，翻译作品日臻完善, a structure composed of two parallel parts; 使用形象语言是很普遍的，一种语言中的修辞格与另一种语言中的修辞格很少匹配in the previous translation has now been changed into形象语言广为使用，语言的修辞格彼此不同，难以对号入座in the present translation, not only with ideas made more explicit but also with shorter but more rhythmically effective expressions used. Similar alterations can be easily identified in the second paragraph of the present translation.

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C) Translation 3: 语言千差万别，意义和结构大相径庭。因此，有人一直认为，翻译难以为之。然译事频仍，佳译迭出。视翻译为难为之举者，所见多为比喻用法、诗歌结构，用法典型、结构复杂。殊不知这些都是语言的边缘特征。比喻用法无所不在，修辞格因语言而异，以修辞格译修辞格，使之等量齐观，难矣。 的确，有些语言不说“我的上帝”，因人们认为，无人能“拥有”上帝；但可以说“我崇拜的上帝”或“我赖以生存的上帝”。翻译是明知难为而为之，因而遭到歌德、施莱艾尔马赫、奥尔特加－加塞特等著名作家的责难。然而，看法虽然如此，他们却都乐意让自己的作品翻译成外文（辜廷格尔，1963）。 Comments: Generally speaking, the present translation sounds prosaic in the Chinese sense. For example, 语言千差万别，意义和结构大相径庭, a structure not only bearing cause-and-effect relation but also parallel one to the other, is now used to substitute for the previous counterpart; 译事频仍，佳译迭出is again a structure with parallel components; and so are 比喻用法、诗歌结构，用法典型、结构复杂and以修辞格译修辞格，使之等量齐观. The more preeminent feature in the present translation lies in the popular use of four character expressions and classic Chinese terms and structures.

Slide105: 

92 “Invisibility” is a term I will use to describe the translator’s situation and activity in contemporary Anglo-American culture. It refers to two mutually determining phenomena: one is an illusionistic effect of discourse, of the translator’s own manipulation of English; the other is the practice of reading and evaluating translations that has long prevailed in the United Kingdom and the Unites States, among other cultures, both English and foreign-language. A translated text, whether prose or poetry, fiction or non-fiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers, and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text – the appearance, in other words, that translation is not in fact a translation, but the “original”. The illusion of transparency is an effect of fluent discourse, of the translator’s effort to insure easy readability by adhering to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning. What is so remarkable here is that this illusory effect conceals the numerous conditions under which the translation is made, starting with the translator’s crucial intervention in the foreign text. The more fluent the translation, the more invisible the translator, and, presumably, the more visible the writer or meaning of the foreign text. ( Lawrence Venuti, 2004:1-2)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of six sentences, of which the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the second is a compound complex sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses connected by a colon, of which the second coordinate clause in turn is composed of two coordinate clauses, the second of which has an attributive clause further embedded; the third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and two coordinate adverbial clause of time; the fourth is in fact a simple sentence; the fifth is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause whose subject and predicative each composed of a nominal clause, and in the predicative nominal clause, there is an object clause further embedded; and the last sentence takes an elliptic structure of the comparative degree of adjectives.

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2. Additional complication： In the second sentence, there is a parenthesis, that is, among other cultures; in the third sentence, there are two parentheses, that is, whether prose or poetry, fiction or non-fiction and in other words, and the part after the dash is in apposition to the appearance… before; the fifth sentence begins with a subject clause while the last sentence is in the pattern of the more…, the more…, and the more…, and it has presumably embedded as a parenthesis.

Slide108: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The first is a loose sentence; having a short parenthetic structure embedded, the second is a periodic sentence; the same is true with the third sentence although it has two parenthetic structures embedded, one somewhat longer than the other; the fourth is a loose sentence while the fifth sentence begins with a subject clause and can be regarded as periodic in structure; and the last is periodic in structure for the inverted order and the inclusion of a very short parenthetic structure. In terms of length, the three sentences in the middle are longer than others, with the third sentence being the longest and positioned in the center of the selection. However, the selection is uniquely characterized for the popular use of loosely coordinated structures. For example, in the second sentence, of discourse and of the translator’s own manipulation of English are loosely connected; when it reads fluently and when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent… are also loosely connected. And there are other similar examples. 2. Structural complication： As revealed in the grammatical analysis, all the sentences are structurally complicated though with local loose connections.

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3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, situation and activity; one is…, the other is…; of discourse, of the translator’s own manipulation of English; reading and evaluating; the United Kingdom and the Unites States; English and foreign-language; prose or poetry; fiction or non-fiction; prose or poetry, fiction or non-fiction; publishers, reviewers, and readers; linguistic or stylistic; personality or intention; the foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text; of fluent discourse, of the translator’s effort; adhering to current usage, maintaining continuous syntax, fixing a precise meaning; the more fluent the translation, the more invisible the translator; the more invisible the translator,…the more visible the writer or meaning of the foreign text; and the more fluent the translation, the more invisible the translator, …the more visible the writer or meaning of the foreign text.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: visible is used as an antonym for invisible, and they are together used in connection with invisibility; translator and translation are repeatedly used with translated used as a partial repetition of translation; publishers, reviewers and readers are used in connection with translator or translators; the United Kingdom and the Unites States is used as a partial repetition Anglo-American; foreign or foreign language is used in contrast with English; reader, read and readability are used as cognates; appearance is repeatedly used; stylistic is used in connection on the one hand and in contrast on the other with linguistic; transparency and transparent are used as cognates; and so are fluent and fluently; and there are others. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, invisibility, describe, translator, situation, activity, contemporary, Anglo-American, culture, mutually, determining, phenomena, illusionistic, effect, discourse, manipulation, practice, evaluating, translation, prevail, foreign, language, prose, poetry, fiction, judge, acceptable, publisher, reviewer, peculiarity, linguistic, stylistic, transparent, transparency, appearance, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: “隐身”是一个我将用来描写译者在当今英美文化中的处境和活动的词语。它指的是两个相互依存的现象：其一是话语的幻想效果和译者自己对英语的操控的幻觉效果；其二是在大英帝国和美利坚合众国与其他文化中长期流行的阅读和评价英语和外语译作的实践。一种翻译文本，无论是散文还是诗歌，是小说还是其他形式，当它文从字顺时，当它没有任何语言的或文体的个性特征使它看起来似乎是透明的、看上去似乎反映出外国作者的个性或意图或外国文本的精华意义的时候，换言之，看上去译文其实不是译文而是原文的时候，大多数出版商、评论家和读者就会认为是可以接受的。这种透明的幻觉是话语流畅的结果，是译者尽力做到坚持使用流行用法，保持句法的连续性，确定准确的意义从而确保了译文的可读性的结果。这儿，如此显赫的是，这种幻觉效果掩盖了翻译时所处的无数条件，从译者对外语文本的关键性干预开始。译文越流畅，译者就越隐匿，而且可以认为，作者或外语文本的意义就越显现。 Comments: Basically, the present translation is acceptable in terms of readability, coherence and authenticity, although the sentences are somewhat longer than necessary. However, in translation of such key words as invisibility, invisible and visible, we have not stuck to 隐身rigidly. In addition, in the translation process, some readjustments have already been made. For example, 词语，a translation for a term, is pushed to the end of the sentence; 其一and其二are used to translate one and the other; 当……时, 就会认为……are used as a sentence pattern; and other similar alterations are made throughout the selection.

Slide112: 

B) Translation 2: 我用“隐蔽性”来描写译者在当今英美文化中的处境和活动。隐蔽性指两个相互依存的现象：其一是话语的幻想效果和译者操纵英语的幻觉效果；其二是英美包括其他文化中长期流行的阅读和评价英语和外语译作的做法。一种翻译文本，无论是散文还是诗歌，是小说还是其他形式，只要文从字顺时，只要没有任何语言的或文体的个性特征，看上去就似乎是透明的、似乎反映了外国作者的个性或意图或外国文本的精华意义，换言之，只要译文看上去不像译文而像原文，大多数出版商、评论家和读者就会认可。这种透明的幻觉是话语流畅的结果，是译者尽力做到坚持使用流行用法、保持句法的连续性、选用准确的意义从而确保了译文的可读性的结果。显而易见，这种幻觉效果掩盖了产生译文时的种种情况，首先包括译者对外语文本进行的重大干预。译文越流畅，译者就越隐蔽，而且可以说，作者或外语文本的意义就越彰显。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence is condensed to a shorter length by using a different structure; in translation of the third sentence, 只要……, 就……is repeatedly used to substitute for当……时, 就会认为……; and the last two sentences in the original are translated into显而易见，这种幻觉效果掩盖了产生译文时的种种情况，首先包括译者对外语文本进行的重大干预。译文越流畅，译者就越隐蔽，而且可以说，作者或外语文本的意义就越彰显, and so on.

Slide113: 

C) Translation 3: 我用“隐蔽性”来描述译者在当今英美文化中的处境和活动，指两种相互依存的现象：一是话语的幻想效果，译者操纵英语的幻觉效果；二是阅读和评价英语和外语译文时在英美包括其他文化中长期流行的做法。翻译文本，无论是散文还是诗歌，是小说还是非小说，只要文从字顺，只要没有独特的语言特征或文体风格，就以为是原作的映照，就以为反映了外语作者的个性或意图或外语文本的意义精髓。换言之，只要译文看上去不像译文而像原文，出版商、评论家和读者就都能认可。这种映照幻觉是话语流畅所致，是译者尽力使用惯常表述、连续句法、精确意义从而确保了译文可读性所致。显而易见，这种幻觉掩盖了翻译时的情况，首先是译者对外语文本的适时干预。译文越流畅，译者就越隐蔽，作者就越彰显，外语文本的意义就越彰显。 Comments: In the present translation, critical alterations are made as follows: first, 隐蔽性, 隐蔽and彰显are used to translate invisibility, invisible and visible with隐蔽and彰显in contrast; second, such four character expressions as 惯常表述、连续句法、精确意义are used to enhance rhythmic effects and readability of the translation; and presumably is left untranslated, together with other translation techniques used.

Slide114: 

93 A typology of texts that is sensitive to the necessities of the translation process and also includes all the varieties of text that are encountered is accordingly a non-negotiable prerequisite for any objective approach to translation criticism. The literature is replete with various attempts to develop a typology based on principles of translation and translation techniques. These attest to a recognition that translation methods should not be determined solely by the particular target audience or special purpose intended for the translation (as so often suggested). The influence of both these factors will be discussed in the chapters on the limitations of translation criticism. But first it is important to examine normal examples of translation, where the purpose is to transfer the text of the original into a second language without abridgment, expansion or any particular spin, representing the source text with corresponding text in the target language. In this type of normal situation it is the type of text which decides the approach for the translator, the type of text is the primary factor influencing the translator’s choices of a proper translation method. (Katharina Reiss, 2004: 16-17)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of six sentences, of which the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause, containing two finite verb phrases, in the second of which there is another attributive clause further embedded; the second is actually a simple sentence; the third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and a nominal clause in apposition to a recognition, in which there is a bracketed parenthetic elliptic adverbial clause; the fourth is again a simple sentence; the fifth is complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of place; and the last is a compound complex, composed of two loosely coordinate clauses. 2. Additional complication： The third sentence is ended with a parenthetic structure embedded in brackets; it in the main clause of the fourth sentence, which begins with two adverbs, serves as a formal subject substituting for the real subject of the infinitive phrase, and the sentence ends with a present participle phrase; and the last sentence begins with a prepositional phrase and the first coordinate clause is in the emphatic structure.

Slide116: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The complicated structure of the subject of the first sentence keeps the essential information further back and hence the sentence can be regarded as periodic in structure; the second sentence is loose in structure; the third sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded in the brackets and can be considered as periodic in structure, but the parenthetic structure is placed at the end of the sentence and does not hinder the fluency very much; the fourth is again a loose sentence; the fifth sentence begins with an adverb and a numeral, and can be regarded as periodic in structure; and the last sentence is periodic in structure for it begins with a prepositional phrase and the first coordinate clause of the main clause is in an emphatic structure. In summary, some of the periodic sentences in the selection are not typical in structure and in function though others are. And the two major parts of the last sentence is loosely connected although it is a periodic sentence. But the first, the fifth and the last sentences are structurally complicated. 2. Structural formality： All the sentences are formal in structure for they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures.

Slide117: 

3. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, is sensitive to…. and also includes…; principles of translation and translation techniques; the particular target audience or special purpose intended for the translation; abridgment, expansion or any particular spin; and it is the type of text which decides…, the type of text is the primary factor influencing… . 4. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: type of text is repeatedly used and used in connection with typology of texts and varieties of text; translation process, principles of translation, translation techniques, translation methods or translation method, and others, are semantically related in the context; typology, text or texts, translation, translation criticism, translator and so on are repeated; abridgment and expansion are translation techniques; and there are other such examples. 5. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, typology, sensitive, necessity, translation, process, include, variety, encounter, accordingly, negotiable, prerequisite, objective, approach, criticism, literature, replete, various, attempt, develop, principle, technique, attest, recognition, method, determined, solely, particular, target, audience, special, purpose, intend, suggest, influence, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 翻译过程所需要的、包含所遇到的所有文本种类的文本类型学因此是用客观方法进行翻译批评的一个不容争议的前提。文献中充满了各种旨在研发出以翻译原则和翻译技巧为基础的一种类型学的各种尝试。这证明了一种认识，（正如常常提议的那样）翻译方法应该只能由特定的目的语读者或特殊的翻译目的来确定。这两种因素的影响，在关于翻译批评的局限性的几章中将予以讨论。但首先，重要的是审视正常的译例。翻译的目的是将原文文本转换成第二种语言的文本，不删、不减、不含糊不清，用目的语言的相应文本来表达原语文本。在这种正常情况下，是文本类型决定译者的方法，文本类型是影响译者选择合适的翻译方法的主要因素。 Comments: The translation is somewhat readable, coherent and authentic, but the first sentence is too long, the two embeddings in the subject are not coherent enough though inherited from the original, and 因此placed in the middle of the sentence sounds awkward; the bracketed parenthesis in the second sentence could be included into the main body of the text; the meaning of 这两种因素的影响is not explicit in the context; the last sentence in the original presents an idea of one added to the other, which is not clearly expressed, and there are other problems.

Slide119: 

B) Translation 2: 如此看来，文本类型学与翻译过程的需要息息相关，包含所遇到的所有文本种类。这样的文本类型学是用客观方法进行翻译批评的不容争议的前提。翻译研究文献中，大家都跃跃欲试，希望研发出以翻译原则和翻译技巧为基础的文本类型学，说明大家都了认识到，正如常常提议的那样，翻译方法应该只能由特定的目的语读者或特殊的翻译目的来确定。目的语读者和翻译目的对翻译方法的影响，在关于翻译批评的局限性的几章中将予以讨论。但首先，重要的是审视正常的译例。翻译的目的是将原文文本转换成另一种语言的文本，不删、不减、不兜圈子，用目的语的相应文本来表达原语文本。在这种正常情况下，是文本类型决定译者的方法，文本类型也是影响译者选择合适的翻译方法的主要因素。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence is now cut into two sentences with the first sentence composed of three parts, but the relation between the last two parts is not coherently expressed; the second and the third sentences are now combined into one with大家都跃跃欲试substituting for 充满了……各种尝试; the bracketed parenthesis is now included into the main body of the text; 目的语读者和翻译目的对翻译方法的影响, a more explicit expression, is now substituted for这两种因素的影响, and so on.

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C) Translation 3: 如此看来，文本类型学涵盖常见的各种文本，与翻译过程息息相关，是用客观方法进行翻译批评的不争的前提。从翻译研究文献可以看出，大家都跃跃欲试，希望在翻译原则和翻译技巧的基础上研发出文本类型学。这说明大家认为，正如经常暗示的那样，特定的目的语读者、特殊的翻译目的决定翻译方法，除此之外，别无其他。目的语读者和翻译目的对翻译方法的影响，在后面讨论翻译批评局限性的几章中将予以讨论。但首先，重要的是审视正常的译例。翻译的目的是将原文文本转换成另一语言的文本，不删、不减、不拐弯抹角，用目的语的相应文本来取代原语文本。在这种情况下，文本类型决定译者如何翻译，文本类型也是影响译者选择合适的翻译策略的主导因素。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence is composed of four coherently ordered parts with minor changes made in the last three parts; in the second sentence, 从翻译研究文献可以看出is substituted for翻译研究文献中 for coherent connection with what follows; 特定的目的语读者、特殊的翻译目的决定翻译方法，除此之外，别无其他is now substituted for the previous counterpart; the key parts of the last sentence is retranslated so that the two ideas presented from different sides are presented with more clarity with the nuances between approach and method made distinct.

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94 It is a curious fact of contemporary literary studies that very different branches of literary theory have converged on the same insight: every telling is a retelling. Deconstruction, as well as its critical progenitors, has been at pains to point out that writers do not simply create original texts; to a great extent any literary work is dependent on texts that have gone before and, moreover, literature is as much about literature as about life. There are not only text and context, but a fabric of intertextuality that links texts to other literary works, both textual predecessors and contemporaries. Thus, a literary work, like a translation, depends on previous texts: neither is an “original semantic unity”, both are “derivative and heterogeneous.” Every writing is rewriting. (Maria Tymoczko, 2004: 41)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of five sentences, of which the first is a compound complex sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses loosely connected by a colon, the first of which is complex in structure, composed of a main clause and a subject clause; the second is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause, which in turn is composed of three coordinate clauses, the second of which has an attributive clause further embedded; the third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the fourth is a compound sentence composed of three coordinate clauses, though loosely connected; and the last is a simple sentence. 2. Additional complication： In the first sentence, it serves as the formal subject while the nominal clause serves as the real subject; in the second sentence, there is a parenthetic structure embedded immediately after deconstruction and the adverb moreover is embedded near the end of the sentence also as a parenthetic structure; and the fourth sentence begins with an adverb and has a prepositional phrase embedded as a parenthesis.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The first sentence can be regarded as periodic in structure for the substitution of the formal subject for the real clausal subject; the second sentence is also periodic in structure for the embedding of the parentheses; and the fourth sentence is also periodic for it begins with an adverb and has a parenthetic structure embedded. 2. Structural complication： The first four sentences in the selection are complicated in structure. 3. Structural formality： All the five sentences are formal in structure for they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are used, for example, every telling is a retelling, every writing is rewriting; text and context; not only text and context, but a fabric of intertextuality; textual predecessors and contemporaries; and derivative and heterogeneous.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Expressions concerned with literature is repeatedly used such as contemporary literary studies, different branches of literary theory, literary work, literature, and literary works; text, and especially texts, are frequently used; context is used in contrast with text; contemporary is used in contrast with predecessor; text, textual, context and intertextuality are used as cognates; writing, telling, retelling, writer, create and so on are used in connection with literary; previous is used as a partial synonym of predecessor; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, curious, contemporary, literature, literary, different, branch, theory, converge, insight, deconstruction, critical, progenitor, writer, create, original, extent, dependent, context, fabric, intertextuality, textual, predecessor, translation, and others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 文学理论的各种分支迥然不同，都聚集到相同的见解上：每一种说法都是在复述，这在当今的文学研究中令人好奇。解构，和它的关键的理论先驱们，不无痛苦地指出，作家们不仅仅创作优秀的文本，在很大程度上，任何文学文本都依赖于此前的文本，更有甚者，文学不仅谈论生活，也谈论文学。不仅有文本和语境，还有互文性网络，将文本和其他文学著作联系起来，和此前的文本与当今的文本联系起来。因此，一部文学著作和一部译作一样依赖于此前的文本：两者都不是“独特的语义整体”，都是“派生的、含有各种成分的。”任何创作都是再创作。 Comments: The present translation is the result of the process of transferring the original by following its wording and structure strictly. Consequently, some sentences in the translation are problematic. For example, 这在当今的文学研究中令人好奇at the end of the first sentence sounds awkward and incongruous with what has gone before, especially in terms of structure; the second sentence in the translation is too long, with too many components, and 和它的关键的理论先驱们 remains intact as a parenthesis.

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B) Translation 2: 当今文学研究中，有一件事令人难思其解。文学理论，分支虽大相径庭，见解却集中于一点：每一种说法都是复述。解构以及那些理论先驱们都不无痛苦地指出，作家们不仅仅创作独特的文本，在很大程度上，任何文学文本都依存于前人的文本；文学既描写生活，也叙说文学。不仅存在文本和语境，还存在将文本和其他文学著作联系起来的互文网络，前人的与现在人的。因此，一部文学著作和一部译作一样依存于前人的文本；两者都不是“独特的语义整体”，都是“派生的、含有其他成分的。”任何写作都是改写。 Comments: In the present translation, the first sentence is chopped into two, resulting in a more coherent structure. In the second sentence of the translation, two important measures are taken: first, the parenthesis is made into the main body of the text; and second, a semi-colon is used. And the colon near the end of the previous translation is now replaced by a semi-colon. In addition, some minor changes are also made throughout the text.

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C) Translation 3: 当今文学研究中，有件事令人费解。文学理论，虽流派纷呈，却所见略同：任何讲叙都是复述。解构及解构理论的鼻祖们一直不无痛苦地指出，作家不是简单地创作自己的文本，在很大程度上，任何文学作品都仰仗前人的文本；文学既描写生活，也讲叙文学。不仅有文本和语境，还有将文本和其他文学著作，前人的和今人的，联系起来的互文结构。因此，一部文学著作和一部译作一样仰仗前人的文本；两者都不是“别无仅有的语义体”，都是“派生的、含有其他成分的。”因此，任何创作都是再创作。 Comments: In the present translation, great changes are made in terms of wording, though the structure is affected as much. For example, 有件事令人费解; 文学理论，虽流派纷呈，却所见略同; 任何讲叙都是复述; 解构及解构理论的鼻祖们; 作家们不是简单地创作自己的文本; 文学既描写生活，也讲叙文学; and含有其他成分的are substituted for the previous counterparts. Consequently, the present translation is not only more readable but also more coherent and authentic.

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95 Until recently, physical barriers such as rivers, seas, and mountains constituted cultural barriers due to the lack of physical contact. Today there are very few cultures physically cut off from other cultures. Nevertheless, there are many cultures which still regard their physical boundaries as cultural boundaries. One example of the physical environment having a direct bearing on culture is mountains, such as the Alps. This mountain chain has witnessed massive emigration and, as a result, a migrant culture. The words of Leonardo Zanier (1995:17), poet from a mountain community in the North-Eastern tip of the Alps (Carnia, Italy), clearly expresses the close relationship that is felt between the enclosed valleys and the unfulfilled desire of the inhabitants to be free from the environmental constraints. The extract below comes from a collection of poems which dwell on the life of the Alpine emigrants who were obliged to find work abroad, and is entitled Free… To Have to Leave. The English translation follows the original Friulian dialect more closely than the Italian, which reduces the metaphor tra un cil cussi strent (‘between a sky so narrow’) to the more prosaic in vallie cosi strette (‘in valleys so narrow’). (David Katan, 2004: 45)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of five sentences while the second is composed of three sentences. In the first paragraph, the first two are simple sentences; the third is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and attributive clause; and the last two are also simple sentences. In the second paragraph, the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; the second is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause, which in turn is composed of two finite verb phrases, in the first of which, there is another attributive clause further embedded; and the last is also a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; the second and the third sentences each begin with an adverb; the subject of the fourth sentence is composed of an absolute nominal construction and the sentence ends with a prepositional phrase; and the last sentence has a short parenthetic structure embedded. In the second paragraph, the first sentence contains a parenthetic nominal phrase and two bracketed parenthetic structures; in addition, the predicate verb expresses should be in plural form. In the second sentence, is entitled should be understood in connection with a collection while dwell on should be understood in connection with poems, showing that the usage is extraordinary or rather odd indeed. The third sentence contains two bracketed parentheses. By the way, as our analysis has shown, the author is not a master of English grammar.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, all the sentences are periodic in structure, for the beginning with a prepositional phrase, an adverb or an absolute structure or for the embedding of a parenthesis; in the second paragraph, the first and the last sentences are periodic in structure for the embedding of two or three parentheses, but the second is a loose sentence. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences in the selection are somewhat structurally complicated. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal in that they are all grammatically complete and free from colloquial structures although there are a grammatical mistake and a grammatical oddity in the second paragraph. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are used, for example, rivers, seas, and mountains; physical boundaries, cultural boundaries; massive emigration and…a migrant culture; the enclosed valleys and the unfulfilled desire of the inhabitants…; and so on.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples can be found as follows: rivers, seas and mountains are concrete physical barriers; the term cultural barriers is used in contrast with the term physical barriers; the term cultural boundaries is use in contrast with physical boundaries; physical boundaries and cultural boundaries are used as synonymous to physical barriers and cultural barriers; cultural, culture and cultures are not only repeated used but also used as cognates; and there are other instances. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, recently, physical, barrier, mountain, constitute, cultural, contact, physically, nevertheless, regard, boundary, environment, witness, massive emigration, migrant, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 直到最近，地理障碍如河流、海洋、山脉，由于缺少地理联系，构成了文化障碍。今天，很少有文化地理上彼此隔开。然而，有许多文化，仍将地理边界看成是文化边界。地理环境对文化有直接影响的一个例子是山脉如阿尔卑斯山。这一山脉曾见证了大量的移民，结果产生了移民文化。 列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17）一个来自阿尔卑斯山东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区的诗人，清楚地表达了被封闭的山谷和当地居民的想摆脱环境限制而没有实现的愿望之间的可以感觉得到的亲密关系。下面的引文摘自一本描写被迫在国外寻找工作的阿尔卑斯山移居国外的移民生活的诗集，题目是《自由……不得不离开》。其英语译文更接近弗里乌尔方言原文，不太接近意大利语原文，它将比喻用法tra un cil cussi strent（在如此狭小的天空之间）简化成更有散文意味的vallie cosi strette（在如此狭小的山谷里）。 Comments: Somewhat readable, coherent and authentic, the translation is actually a strict duplication of the original. Consequently, the translation is not fluent enough if it is regarded as an independent work. This is effected mainly by such awkward sentences as地理环境对文化有直接影响的一个例子是山脉如阿尔卑斯山; 列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17）一个来自阿尔卑斯山东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区的诗人，清楚地表达了被封闭的山谷和当地居民想摆脱环境限制的而没有实现的愿望之间的可以感觉得到的亲密关系; 下面的引文摘自一本描写被迫在国外寻找工作的阿尔卑斯山移居国外的移民生活的诗集，题目是《自由……不得不离开》(though with some changes made); and其英语译文更接近弗里乌尔方言原文，不太接近意大利语原文，它将比喻用法tra un cil cussi strent（在如此狭小的天空之间）简化成更有散文意味的vallie cosi strette（在如此狭小的山谷里）.

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B) Translation 2: 直到最近，由于缺乏接触，河流、海洋、山脉等地理障碍，构成了文化障碍。今天，由于地理上的原因而彼此隔开，这样的文化已经不多了。然而，许多文化，仍将地理边界看成是文化边界。地理环境对文化有直接影响的一个例子是阿尔卑斯山这样的山脉。它曾见证了大量移民，见证了由此造成的移民文化。 诗人列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17），来自阿尔卑斯上东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区，清楚地表达了被封闭的山谷和当地居民愿望之间的紧密联系。当地居民想摆脱环境的局限，但由于重峦叠嶂而难以实现。下面的引文摘自他的一本诗集，题目是《摆脱局限……离乡背井》，描写被迫在国外寻找工作的阿尔卑斯山移居国外的移民的生活。原文用意大利弗里乌尔方言写成，英语译文更接近弗里乌尔方言，将比喻用法tra un cil cussi strent（在如此狭小的天空之间）翻译成了成更有散文意味的vallie cosi strette（在如此狭小的山谷里）。 Comments: Taking into consideration what is commented on previously, changes are made by such substitutions for the previous ones as这样的文化已经不多了; 地理环境对文化有直接影响的一个例子是阿尔卑斯山这样的山脉; 见证了由此造成的移民文化; 诗人列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17），来自阿尔卑斯上东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区，清楚地表达了被封闭的山谷和当地居民愿望之间的紧密关系。当地居民想摆脱环境的局限，但由于重峦叠嶂而难以实现; 下面的引文摘自他的一本诗集，题目是《摆脱局限……离乡背井》，描写被迫在国外寻找工作的阿尔卑斯山移居国外的移民生活; 原文用弗里乌尔方言和意大利语写成，英语译文更接近前者 and so on. All the changes contribute to the readability, coherence and authenticity, and finally, to the fluency of the translation. However, the changes are not made irrespective of the original to unrecognizable extent.

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C) Translation 3: 不久之前，河流、海洋、山脉等地理障碍一直是文化障碍，为其所阻，各种文化不相往来。今天，由于地理上的原因而彼此隔开，这样的文化已屈指可数了。然而，许多文化，仍将地理边界视为文化边界。地理环境对文化有直接影响，阿尔卑斯山就是典型的例子。它见证了大量移民，见证了由此造成的移民文化。 诗人列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17），来自阿尔卑斯上东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区，清楚地表达了层峦叠嶂对山民实现理的重大影响。当地居民不满足于幽居山谷，但由于群山阻隔而难以如愿。下文引自他的一本诗集，题目是《越岭翻山竞自由》，描写被迫在国外寻找工作的阿尔卑斯山移民的生活。原文用意大利弗里乌尔方言写成，英语译文更接近弗里乌尔方言，离意大利语有一定距离，将富有诗意的tra un cil cussi strent（天空狭小难回旋）翻译成了成更有散文意味的vallie cosi strette（在如此狭小的山谷里）。 Comments: In the present translation, drastic changes have been made. For example, in the first sentence, 不久之前is substituted for 直到最近；为其所阻，各种文化不相往来is substituted for由于缺乏接触 and placed at the very end of the sentence; and minor changes have also been made. In the second sentence, 屈指可数is substituted for 已经不多; in the fourth sentence, 地理环境对文化有直接影响，阿尔卑斯山就是典型的例子is substituted for the previous translation. In addition, the title of the collection of poems is now changed into《越岭翻山竞自由》with the first sentence in the second paragraph changed into诗人列奥纳多.匝尼尔（1955:17），来自阿尔卑斯上东北角（意大利卡尼尔）的一个山区，清楚地表达了层峦叠嶂对山民实现理的重大影响。当地居民不满足于幽句山谷，但由于群山阻隔而难以如愿. And if careful enough, we can identify other examples. Somewhat irrespective of the original structure but not irrespective of the meaning, all the changes are intended for the contributions to the fluency of the translation with better readability, coherence and authenticity.

Exercises:: 

Exercises: 91 Another paradox of translating is reflected in the contention that translating is valid but paraphrase is wrong. In fact, all translating involves differing degrees of paraphrase, since there is no way in which one can successfully translate word for word and structure for structure. In Spanish me fui is literally ‘I went myself’ or ‘I got away quickly.’ In English, as well as in most other European languages, one speaks of the ‘heart’ as being the center of emotions, but in many languages in West Africa a person ‘loves with the liver’ and in some of the indigenous languages of Central America people talk about ‘loving with the stomach.’ Since languages do not differ essentially in what they can say, but in how they say it, paraphrase is inevitable. What is important is the semantic legitimacy of the paraphrase. (Eugen A, Nida, 2001: 4) 92 The research for alternative to fluent translation leads to theories and practices that aim to signify the foreignness of the foreign text. At the turn of the nineteenth century, foreignizing translation lacked cultural capital in English, but it was very active in the formation of another national culture – German. In 1813, during the Napoleonic wars, Friedrich Schleiermacher’s lecture Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersetzens (“On the Different Methods of Translating”) viewed translation as an important practice in the Prussian nationalist movement: it could enrich the German language by developing an elite literature and thus enable German culture to realize its historical destiny of global domination. And yet, surprisingly, Schleiermacher proposed this nationalist agenda by theorizing translation as the locus of cultural difference, not the homogeneity that his ideological configuration might imply, and that, in various, historically specific forms, has long prevailed in English-language translation, British and American, Schleiermacher’s translation theory rested on a Chauvinistic condescension toward foreign cultures, a sense of their ultimate inferiority to German-language culture, but also on an antichauvinistic respect for their differences, a sense that German-language culture is inferior and therefore must attend to them if it is to develop. (Lawrence Venuti, 2004: 99)

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93 The debate over classifying texts for translation has clearly demonstrated that both the translators and their critics must have the same analytical base. And this is most likely to be found in the medium of the texts themselves: language. Since texts require the medium of language for their expression (although mathematical formulae may not require translation), each text must be examined to determine precisely what function of language it represents. According to Karl Bühler (1990, p.28), language serves simultaneously to represent (objectively), express (subjectively) and appeal (persuasively). Now these three functions are not equally represented in every linguistic expression. In a single text (or portion of text) the depictive element may be dominant, in another the expressive element, and in yet another the attempt to persuade hearers or readers. Of course the whole of a text will not always be dedicated exclusively to a single function. In actual practice there are constant combinations and overlapping. And yet as one or another of these functions becomes dominant in any given text, it becomes evident that distinguishing the three basic functions is justified: the depictive function is emphasized in content-focused texts, the expressive function emphasizing form-focused texts, and the persuasive function emphasizing appeal-focused texts. By emphasis on context is meant a dominant interest in conveying certain matters, data or information. Texts emphasizing form will certainly have content, but it is the form employed for the content which is of dominant concern. (Katharina Reiss, 2004: 24-25) 94 Studies of oral literature – that is, the literatures of most peoples of the world currently and the literatures of most past cultures, literatures which include both folklore and oral epic, as well as various other performance types – have come to similar conclusions. It is agreed that the content, form, and performance techniques of any given traditional song or tale, for example, derive from established patterns that the teller or singer inherits and in turn passes on to those who succeed him. Albert Lond, following Milman Parry, the framer of the theory of oral composition of epics such as the Iliad, Beowulf, and La Chanson de Roland, has summarized this view succinctly: “The picture that emerges is not really one of conflict between preserver of tradition and creative artist; it is rather one of the preservation of tradition by the constant re-creation of it. The ideal is a true story well and truly retold.” (Lord [1960]1964:29, cf. 99ff.). Every creation is a re-creation. (Maria Tymoczko, 2004: 41)

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95 The final level goes beyond the satisfaction of self and looks towards purposes in life. This is the “meta” level. At this level, identity and evolution are considered not only from a personal but also from a social point of view. At this stage the person begins to look for a higher purpose. This is equivalent to the spiritual level or “mission” in the Logical Levels model, which we will discuss in the following section. The various levels of imprinting, logical levels and the development stages are shown below. Along the horizontal axis, from left to right, is the time line, from birth to adulthood. By the time one is an adult one is expected to have moved from concern with biological needs to concern for the aesthetic needs and beyond. Vertically, we can see how the Logical Levels model links with the developmental model. Biological need is at the level of behavior (all attention is focused on doing). At the next level, capabilities, intellectual imprinting takes place (the focus is now on how). The following level, beliefs, relates to societal imprinting while identity relates to aesthetic imprinting (realization of self). The final stage, not yet discussed as part of the Logical Levels model, is the spiritual, which compares to the meta development stage. (David Katan, 2004:65)

第四节: 

第四节 96 The apparent division between cultural and linguistic approaches to translation that characterized much translation research until 1980s is disappearing, partly because of shifts in linguistics that have seen that discipline take a more overtly cultural turn, partly because those who advocated an approach to translation rooted in cultural history have become less defensive about their position. In the early years when Translation Studies was establishing itself, its advocates positioned themselves against both linguists and literary scholars, arguing that linguists failed to take into account broader contextual dimensions and that literary scholars were obsessed with making pointless evaluative judgments. It was held to be important to move the study of translation out from under the umbrella of either comparative literature or applied linguistics, and fierce polemics arguing for the autonomy of Translation Studies were common. Today, such an evangelical position seems quaintly outdated, and Translation Studies is more comfortable with itself, better able to engage in borrowing from and lending techniques and methods to other disciplines. The important work of translation scholars based in linguistics, such figures as Mona Baker, Roger Bell, Basil Hatim, Ian Mason, Kirsten Malmkjaer, Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer and Wolfram Wilss, to name but some of the better-known, has done a great deal to break down the boundaries between disciplines and to move translation studies on from a position of possible confrontation. Nor should we forget the enormous importance of such figures as J.C. Catford, Michael Halliday, Peter Newmark and Eugene Nida whose research into translation before Translation Studies started to evolve as a discipline in its own right laid the foundations for what was to follow. (Susan Bassnett, 2004: 3)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of six sentences, of which the first is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause with a prepositional phrase and an adverbial clause of reason in coordination, and the main clause and the adverbial clause of reason each have an attributive clause further embedded; additionally, the prepositional phrase has an attributive clause embedded, and the clause is in the pattern of subject; the second sentence is composed of a prepositional phrase, a clause and a present participle phrase, and the prepositional phrase has an attributive clause embedded while the participle phrase has two coordinate object clauses embedded, therefore, the sentence is complex in structure; the third is a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses; the fourth is also a compound sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses; the fifth is actually a simple sentence; and the last is a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an attributive clause, at the end of which there is a nominal clause further embedded serving as the object for the preposition for.

Slide141: 

2. Additional complication： As mentioned in the analysis above, the second sentence begins with a clause-containing prepositional phrase and ends with a clause-containing participle phrase. The structure of the third sentence is complicated in two aspects: first, the formal subject it has substituted for the real subject, an infinitive phrase; and second, the subject of the second coordinate clause is composed of an absolute nominal construction. In the fifth sentence, there are two parentheses embedded one after the other, that is, such figures as Mona Baker, Roger Bell, Basil Hatim, Ian Mason, Kirsten Malmkjaer, Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer and Wolfram Wilss and to name but some of the better-known.

Slide142: 

B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The subject of the main clause of the first can be regarded as a periodic sentence for it has a subordinate clause embedded and keeps the predicate until the end of the main clause, and therefore, the important information contained in the sentence is delayed. As mentioned in the grammatical analysis, the second is a periodic sentence in that it begins with a clause-containing prepositional phrase. The real subject of the first coordinate clause in the third sentence is kept further back by using the formal subject in its place and in this sense, the clause can be regarded as periodic in structure; the second clause of the sentence has an absolute nominal construction as its subject and keeps the information in the predicate further back. The fourth sentence begins with an adverb and can be regarded as periodic in structure. The fifth sentence has two parenthetic structures embedded in succession, and it is a periodic sentence. In the last sentence, the subject and the predicate are partially inverted. 2. Structural complication： The grammatical analysis and the analysis above point to the fact that all the sentences are structurally complicated.

Slide143: 

3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, cultural and linguistic; partly because…, partly because…; linguists and literary scholars; linguists failed to take into account broader contextual dimensions and that literary scholars were obsessed with making pointless evaluative judgments; comparative literature or applied linguistics; borrowing from and lending…to…; techniques and methods; Mona Baker, Roger Bell, Basil Hatim, Ian Mason, Kirsten Malmkjaer, Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer and Wolfram Wilss; to break down the boundaries between disciplines and to move translation studies on…; and J.C. Catford, Michael Halliday, Peter Newmark and Eugene Nida.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: translation, cultural, linguists, linguistics, Translation Studies, literary scholars and others are repeatedly used; that discipline in the second line refers to linguistics; the pronoun themselves refers to advocates; names of translation theoreticians are repeatedly listed, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, apparent, division, cultural, linguistic, approach, translation, characterize, disappearing, linguistics, discipline, advocate, defensive, establish, linguist, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 以文化方法还是以语言方法对待翻译是许多翻译研究的特征，直到1980年代，两者之间仍有明显区别，现在正在消失。部分原因是由于语言学发生了许多转变，已经看到更公开地转向文化；部分原因是由于那些倡导扎根于文化史的对待翻译方法的人不再那么保护自己的立场。当翻译研究正在建立自己的早几年中，那些倡导者们将自己置于既反对语言学家也反对文学学者的地位，争辩说，语言学家们没有考虑更广阔的语境纬度，文学学者们为无意义的评价性评语所困扰。人们认为，重要的是将翻译研究从比较文学和应用语言学的保护伞下转移出来，许多激烈的争论主张翻译研究独立自主，非常普遍。今天，这种热衷于传教的立场看来已经黯然失色了，已经陈旧了，翻译研究对自己感到更舒适，更能够从其他学科借进和借出技巧和方法。以语言学为基础的翻译学者如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯，仅以这几位著名的为例，他们的重要著作在推倒学科边界方面、在将翻译研究从可能发生对抗的地位向前推进方面做了大量的工作。我们也不应忘记J. C. 卡特福特、麦克尔.韩理德、彼得.纽马克和尤金.奈达等人的巨大重要性，他们在翻译研究开始演变为一个独立的学科之前对翻译进行的研究对后期的工作打下了许多基础。 Comments: The present translation is the result of rendering the original into a target text by following the former rigidly. Consequently, some expressions are not to the point though acceptable if looked at in isolation. For example, 以文化方法还是以语言方法对待翻译; 两者之间仍有明显区别，现在正在消失; 已经看到更公开地转向文化; 保护自己的立场; 建立自己的早几年中; 更广阔的语境纬度; 置于……地位; 从比较文学和应用语言学的保护伞下转移出来, and others. In addition, some sentences are too long. For example, 当翻译研究正在建立自己的早几年中，那些倡导者们将自己置于既反对语言学家也反对文学学者的地位，争辩说，语言学家们没有考虑更广阔的语境纬度，文学学者们为无意义的评价性评语所困扰; 以语言学为基础的翻译学者如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯，仅以这几位著名的为例，他们的重要著作在推倒学科边界方面、在将翻译研究从可能发生对抗的地位向前推进方面做了大量的工作; and我们也不应忘记J. C. 卡特福特、麦克尔.韩理德、彼得.纽马克和尤金.奈达等人的巨大重要性，他们在翻译研究开始演变为一个独立的学科之前对翻译进行的研究对后期的工作打下了许多基础.

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B) Translation 2: 从文化的角度还是从语言学的角度研究翻译是二十世纪八十年代前翻译研究的特色，两者间的明显区别正在消失。部分是由于语言学发生了转变，更公开地转向文化；部分是由于那些主张扎根于文化史研究翻译的人不再那么坚持自己的立场。在建立翻译研究学科之初，倡导者们既反对语言学家也反对文学学者，争辩说，语言学家没有考虑更为广阔的语境因素，文学学者热衷于无意义地评品优劣，陷得很深，难以自拔。大家认为，重要的是将翻译研究从比较文学和应用语言学中分离出来，普遍为翻译研究争取独立自主而摇旗呐喊。今天，这种热衷于摇旗呐喊已销声匿迹，翻译研究自享其乐，能从其他学科借进和借出技巧和方法。以语言学为基础的翻译学者，颇为知名的如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯，他们的重要著作在打破学科界线、将翻译研究从可能发生对抗的境地推向前进方面做了大量的工作。我们也不应忘记J. C. 卡特福特、麦克尔.韩理德、彼得.纽马克和尤金.奈达等人的巨大贡献，他们在翻译研究开始演变为一个独立的学科之前对翻译进行的探索对后期的研究打下了基础。 Comments: In the present translation, all the above-mentioned weak points are almost eliminated completely by substituting more fluent expressions for the previous awkward ones. However, there are other weak points. For example, in the first sentence, the idea of apparent division is lost; in 热衷于无意义地评聘优劣，陷得很深，难以自拔, the added information is much more than necessary; 摇旗呐喊is an expression with derogatory meaning; 借进和借出are two terms which are a little too practical; 以语言学为基础的翻译学者，颇为知名的如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯is too long a phrase and not naturally connected with what follows, and so on.

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C) Translation 3: 二十世纪八十年代以前的翻译研究的明显的特点是，一部分人从文化的角度出发，另一部分人借助于语言学，二者泾渭分明，这种流派界线现在正在消失。消失的原因，一是语言学发生了变化，公开转向文化；二是主张扎根于文化史研究翻译的人不再坚持自己的立场。在初倡建立翻译研究学科之际，倡导者们既反对语言学家也反对文学研究者，认为，语言学家没有考虑辽阔的语境因素，文学研究者无意义地评品优劣，难以自拔。大家认为，翻译研究既不属于比较文学也不属于应用语言学，应从中独立出来，纷纷为翻译研究争得一席之地而慷慨呈辞。今天，慷慨呈辞已销声匿迹，翻译研究乐在其中，既从其他学科汲取营养，也为其他学科提供技巧和方法。下面这几位学者以语言学为基础，颇有名望，如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯等。他们著书立说，为打破学科界线做出了重要贡献，将翻译研究从两军对垒的危险境地推向前进，立下了汗马功劳。我们也不应忘记J. C. 卡特福特、麦克尔.韩理德、彼得.纽马克和尤金.奈达等人的巨大贡献，在翻译研究开始演变为一个独立的学科之前，他们对翻译进行了探索，为继后的发展打下了基础。 Comments: In the present translation, a great many important changes are made. For example, the first sentence in the translation is the result of reorganization by shifting until 1980s to the very beginning and letting it serve as the modifier of翻译研究, which itself is a translation based on ideas rather than on structure. In addition, 一部分人从文化的角度出发and另一部分人借助于语言学are not only parallel but also partially varied, and二者泾渭分明naturally follows them; 消失的原因is inserted both for more coherent with what goes before and for the pavement of the ways for what follows. Moreover, such translations as follows are also different from the previous ones, for example, 一是语言学发生了变化，公开转向文化; 二是主张扎根于文化史研究翻译的人不再坚持自己的立场了; 文学研究者无意义地评品优劣，难以自拔; 慷慨呈辞, and others. What is worth mentioning is that下面这几位学者以语言学为基础，颇有名望，如莫纳.贝克、罗杰.贝尔、巴兹尔.哈廷、伊恩.梅森、戈斯滕.马姆克甲尔、凯瑟丽娜.莱斯、汉斯.弗米尔、乌尔弗拉姆.韦尔斯等。他们著书立说，为打破学科界线做出了重要贡献;将翻译研究从两军对垒的危险境地推向前进，立下了汗马功劳is again the result of reorganization.

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97 In the middle to late 1960s, as post-war feminism began to develop a certain momentum along with many of the other protest movements of the time in Western Europe and North America, the notion of gender evolved to complement and extend that of biological sexual difference. Since biological sexual difference hardly seemed adequate to explain the differences in men’s and women’s societal roles and opportunities, grassroots women’s movements and scholars developed and employed other tools and analytical categories in order to understand these discrepancies. Anglo-American feminist writers and theorists began to refer back to Beauvoir and explore the questions raised by her aphorism. Beauvoir suggests that a baby born with female reproductive organs does not simply grow up to be a woman. She has to turn herself into a woman, or more correctly, she is turned into a woman by the society she grows up in and in response to the expectations that society has of woman. The final product ‘woman’ is a result of education and conditioning, and differs according to the dominant influences she is subject to in the culture, subculture, ethnic group, religious sect, in which she grows up. Early feminist use of the term gender referred to the result of the social process that turns young females into girls, and later into women. This process instill into girls and women the physical, psychological and sociocultural attributes that are typical of a particular time and culture and which, as a rule, differ substantially from the attributes of the men of the same period. (Luise von Flotow, 2004: 5)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of eight sentences, of which the first two are complex sentences, of which the first is composed of an adverbial clause of time and a main clause, and the second is composed of an adverbial clause of reason and a main clause; the third is again a complex sentence, composed of a main clause and an object clause, and the fourth is actually a simple sentence; the fifth is a compound complex sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses, in the second of which there are two attributive clauses embedded; the last three are complex sentences, of which the first is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause, which has another attributive clause further embedded; the second is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause while the third is composed of a main clause and two coordinate attributive clauses. 2. Additional complication： The first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase followed by an adverbial clause; the second sentence begins with an adverbial clause; the fifth sentence has a parenthetic structure embedded in the middle; and the last sentence has a short parenthetic structure embedded.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The first two are periodic sentences for their beginnings; and the fifth and the last are also periodic sentences each for the embedding of a parenthetic structure. But all the other sentences are loose in structure. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences are somewhat grammatically complicated except for the fourth sentence, which is simple in structure. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, Western Europe and North America; complement and extend; men’s and women’s; societal roles and opportunities; grassroots women’s movements and scholars; developed and employed; other tools and analytical categories; writers and theorists; refer back to Beauvoir and explore the questions raised by her aphorism; she has to turn herself into a woman, or more correctly, she is turned into a woman; education and conditioning; culture, subculture, ethnic group, religious sect; into girls, and later into women; physical, psychological and sociocultural; and time and culture.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: other protest movements and post-war feminism are semantically related; gender, woman or woman, sexual, biological, feminist, female, reproductive organ, and so on, are used in close connection with the theme of the selection; biological is used in contrast with culture and society; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, feminism, momentum, protest, movement, gender, notion, complement, evolve, extend, biological, sexual, difference, adequate, explain, societal, opportunity, scholar, develop, employ, analytical, category, understand, discrepancy, feminist, theorist, explore, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 1960年代中后期，当战后女权主义和当时的许多其他抗议运动在西欧和北美发展成某种势力时，性别的概念演绎成补充和延伸生物性别差异的概念。由于生物性别差异看来不能满意地解释男人和女人的社会脚色和机遇差异，基层妇女运动和学者们研发并使用其他手段和分析范畴来理解这些差别。英美女权主义作家和理论家们开始重新提起博瓦尔，探讨她在格言警句中提出的问题。博瓦尔建议，带有女性生殖器官的婴儿不是简单地长成了妇女。她得将自己变成妇女，或者更正确地说，她被她所生长的社会、为了回答社会对妇女的期待变成了妇女。这个最终产品‘妇女’是教育和条件的结果，根据她所生长的文化、次文化、民族社团、宗教团体中她所面临的占统治地位的影响而有所不同。早期女权主义者使用性别这个术语指将女婴变成女孩后来变成妇女的社会过程的结果。这一过程使女孩和妇女吸收了当时文化的典型的物理的、心理的和社会文化的特性，这些特性，一般说来，有别于当时男人的特性。 Comments: The present translation is somewhat readable, coherent and authentic. However, 当……时is separated by too long a clause; the distinction between性别and生物性别is not made explicit enough; the meaning of理解这些差别is not very clear; 她被她所生长的社会、为了回答社会对妇女的期待变成了妇女 and others are too long; 教育and条件are not of the same category; 物理的is now an appropriate term used to describe woman, and so on.

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B) Translation 2: 二十世纪六十年代后期，战后女权主义和当时的许多其他抗议运动在西欧和北美兴起，来势凶猛，对性别概念进行了演绎，在表述生物性差异的基础上进行了补充和拓展。由于生物性差异难以解释男人和女人在社会脚色和机遇上的差别，基层妇女运动和学者们研发并使用其他手段和分析范畴来解释这些差别。英美女权主义作家和理论家们开始重新探讨博瓦尔用格言提出的问题。博瓦尔认为，生殖器为女性的婴儿不是长大了就变成了妇女。她得将自己变成妇女，或者更确切地说，她被她所生长的社会变成了妇女，为了回答社会对妇女的期待而变成了妇女。最终产品‘妇女’是教育和调控的结果。妇女生长在一定的文化、次文化、民族社团、宗教团体里，受到的主要影响不同，因而有别于男性。早期女权主义者用性别指将女婴变成女孩又变成妇女的社会过程的最终结果。该过程使女孩和妇女浸泡在特定时期、特定文化中，获取了典型的身体的、心理的和社会文化的特性，这些特性，一般说来，有别于同期的男人的特性。 Comments: The present translation is different from the previous in following aspects: first, in the first sentence,在西欧和北美兴起，来势凶猛 and在表述生物性差异的基础上进行了补充和拓展are to some extent new translations with new wordings as substitutes for the previous; second, in the second sentence, 解释is used to replace理解; third, 英美女权主义作家和理论家们开始重新探讨博瓦尔用格言提出的问题is now a contracted translation; fourth, 博瓦尔认为，生殖器为女性的婴儿不是长大了就变成了妇女is the result of reorganization, and there are many other similar alterations.

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C) Translation 3: 二十世纪六十年代后期，战后女权主义运动在西欧和北美发展势头强劲，其他抗议运动也风起云涌。他们对性别进行了演绎，补充和拓展了性别的生物性外延和内涵。男人和女人的社会脚色和社会机遇大相悬殊，用生物性差异难以解释。于是，基层妇女运动和学者们别出心裁，用其他手段和分析范畴来阐释这些差别。英美女权主义作家和理论家们开始重新探讨博瓦尔格言中提出的问题。博瓦尔认为，生殖器为女性的婴儿不是长大了就成了妇女。她得将自己变成妇女，或者更确切地说，她所生长的社会将她变成了妇女，为回应社会对女性的期待而变成了妇女。‘妇女’最终是教育和调控的结果。妇女生长在一定的文化、次文化、民族社团、宗教团体里，受到的主要影响不同，因而有别于男性。早期女权主义者用性别指将女婴变成女孩又变成妇女的社会终极过程。该过程将一定时期、一定文化的典型的生理特性、心理特性、社会文化特性赋予女孩，赋予妇女，这些特性，总是有别于同期的男性特性。 Comments: In the present translation, following changes are made: first, 战后女权主义运动在西欧和北美发展势头强劲，其他抗议运动也风起云涌is used with one clause broken up into two; second, 补充和拓展了性别的生物性外延和内涵is substituted for the previous with better clarification of ideas contained in the original; third, 男人和女人的社会脚色和社会机遇大相悬殊，用生物性差异难以解释is to some extent a new translation with the components swapped; and there are more similar changes made.

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98 The projects I have selected are among the most determined applications of polysystem theory. Both are concerned with French literature, in adjacent periods. Shelly Yahalom’s work (1980, 1981) focuses on the eighteenth century novel. Lieven D’hulst’s book (1987) deals with French poetry before and during the Romantic era, and fits into the larger Leoven University research project to which I have referred in previous chapters. To do justice to these analyses we have to engage with them in some detail. This will take a little perseverance. Yahalom, who acknowledges critical debts to Lotman as well as to Even-Zohar, seeks to account for changes in the French novel during the Neoclassical period. She does this by positioning the novel in relation to the canonized center of the literary system and that system’s multiform, frayed edges. The metaphor which underlies her analysis is that of a strategic military campaign: the novel and its practitioners – writers and publishers, mainly – first retreat from the powerful center and then find ways to infiltrate and eventually destabilize it. The means chosen to wage this campaign, however, will also change the novel itself. (Theo Hermans, 2004: 112)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of two paragraphs, of which the first is composed of six sentences while the second is composed of four sentences. In the first paragraph, the first and the fourth are complex sentences while all the others are simple ones. Of the two complex sentences, the first is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause embedded in the subject; and the second is composed of a main clause and an object clause. In the second paragraph, the first and the third are complex or compound complex sentences while the others are simple sentence. Of the two complex sentences, the first is composed of a main clause and an attributive clause; and the next is composed of two coordinate clauses separated by the colon, and in the first coordinate clause, there is an attributive clause embedded. 2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the third and fourth sentences each have a parenthesis embedded in the brackets; and the fifth sentence begins with an infinitive phrase; in the second paragraph, the first sentence has an attributive clause embedded as a parenthesis; in the third sentence, the attributive clause in the subject of the main clause keeps the subject and the predicate far apart and there is a parenthesis embedded between the two dashes; and the last sentence has a short parenthesis embedded between the subject and the predicate.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the third, fourth and fifth sentences are periodic in structure for the reason that the third and fourth sentences each have a parenthesis embedded in the brackets while the fifth sentence begins with an infinitive phrase; in the second paragraph, the first, third and last sentences are periodic in structure for they each have a parenthetic structure embedded, and the subject and the predicate of the main clause are kept far apart by the attributive clause. But all the other sentences in the selection are simply loose sentences. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences are rather simple in structure and, in fact, most of them are simple sentences. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures.

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4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, before and during; deals with French poetry before and during the Romantic era, and fits into the larger Leoven University research project; to Lotman as well as to Even-Zohar; the novel and its practitioners; writers and publishers; and first retreat from the powerful center and then find ways to infiltrate and eventually destabilize it. 5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples could be found as follows: novel is a genre of literature; novel, French and analysis are repeated; project is used to repeat projects; period, era, periods are terms with similar meanings; writers and publishers are concerned with literature; and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, project, select, determined, application, polysystem, theory, concerned, literature, adjacent, period, focus, century, novel, poetry, Romatic, era, university, research, refer, previous, chapter, justice, analysis, engage, perseverance, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 我选择的项目，是处于多元理论最确定的众多的应用之中的。两者都是关于法国文学的，时间毗邻。雪莉.亚哈罗姆的著作（1980，1981）集中于十八世纪的小说。列文.杜尔斯特的书（1987）讨论浪漫主义时期及稍前的法国诗歌，是利奥文大学研究项目的一部分，这个项目我在前几章中已经提到。为公正地对待这些分析，我们得对它们进行一定程度的详细研究，这需要有点耐心。 亚哈罗姆承认，她十分感谢伊文-佐哈，也十分感谢罗特姆。她试图揭示新古典时期法国小说演变的原因。她这样做是将这类小说放在与文学系统的经典相关的位置和与该系统多形式的琐碎的边缘相关的位置。她的分析背后的比喻是一场战略性的军事运动：小说和它的实践者—也就是作家和出版商—首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后想办法渗透，最后使其失去稳定。然而，选择发起这场运动的手段，也改变小说本身。 Comments: The present translation sounds somewhat exotic though not without the slightest readability, coherence and authenticity. For example, 是处于多元理论最确定的众多的应用之中的; 雪莉.亚哈罗姆的著作……集中于十八世纪的小说; 为公正地对待这些分析，我们得对它们进行一定程度的详细研究，这需要有点耐心; and the ideas in她这样做是将这类小说放在与文学系统的经典相关的位置和与该系统多形式的琐碎的边缘相关的位置and她的分析背后的比喻是一场战略性的军事运动：小说和它的实践者—也就是作家和出版商—首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后想办法渗透，最后使其失去稳定are not sufficiently clearly expressed.

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B) Translation 2: 我选择的课题，是应用多元理论最成功的课题中的课题。两者都是研究法国文学的，时间相隔不远。雪莉.亚哈罗姆的著作（1980，1981）集中研究十八世纪的小说。列文.杜尔斯特的著作（1987）讨论浪漫主义时期及稍前的法国诗歌，是利奥文大学研究项目的一部分，这个项目我在前几章中已经提到。为公正地对待这些研究，我们得对之进行一定程度的详细分析，这需要有点耐力。 亚哈罗姆借助伊文-佐哈罗特姆和伊文-佐哈的理论，试图揭示新古典时期法国小说演变的原因，分析时将这类小说放在与文学系统的经典相关的位置和与该系统多形式的琐碎的边缘相关的位置。她将分析比喻成一场战略性的军事运动：小说和它的实践者—也就是作家和出版商—首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后想办法渗透，最后使其失去稳定。然而，选择发起这场运动的手段，也改变小说本身。 Comments: The first sentence in the present translation is organized with more coherent components. However, 两者……remains as an abrupt follower. In addition, 为公正地对待这些研究，我们得对之进行一定程度的详细分析，这需要有点耐力could be reworded; 分析时将这类小说放在与文学系统的经典相关的位置和与该系统多形式的琐碎的边缘相关的位置and她将分析比喻成一场战略性的军事运动：小说和它的实践者—也就是作家和出版商—首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后想办法渗透，最后使其失去稳定could be retranslated.

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C) Translation 3: 我的两个研究课题是从应用多元理论最成功的课题中挑选的，都是研究法国文学的，时间间隔不大。雪莉.亚哈罗姆（1980，1981）集中研究十八世纪法国小说。列文.杜尔斯特（1987）则讨论法国浪漫主义时期以及稍前一点的诗歌，是利奥文大学文学研究项目的一部分，这个项目我在前几章中已经提到。为得出公正的结论，我们得稍有耐心地对这两项研究进行比较详尽的分析。 亚哈罗姆诉诸于伊文-佐哈罗特姆和伊文-佐哈的多元理论，旨在揭示法国新古典时期的小说演变的原因，分析时将这类小说与文学系统中的经典相关联与该系统中多形式的驳杂边缘相关联。她将分析比喻成实施军事战略：小说及其操作者也就是作家和出版商首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后谋求渗透，最后使其瓦解。然而，用这些手段发起这场军事行动，也意味着用这些手段变革了小说本身。 Comments: The two sentences in the previous translation are now combined into one with 两个研究课题fronted to achieve better coherence. In为得出公正的结论，我们得稍有耐心地对这两项研究进行比较详尽的分析, 为得出公正的结论is substituted for the previous translation and 有耐心地is fronted with coherence and authenticity improved. 分析时将这类小说与文学系统中的经典相关联与该系统中多形式的驳杂边缘相关联; 她将分析比喻成实施军事战略：小说及其操作者也就是作家和出版商首先从力量雄厚的中心撤退，然后谋求渗透，最后使其瓦解and然而，用这些手段发起这场军事行动，也意味着用这些手段变革了小说本身are, to some extent, new translations.

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99 In summary, it seems that the ‘modern’ science of translation has yet to solve some rather fundamental problems. Furthermore, there is reason to believe that these problems are not just particular difficulties that will be overcome by further research. It rather seems that these problems are not unrelated, and that they are at least partially conditioned by two basic methodological factors: one is the reliance on a descriptive-classificatory approach to science, and the other is the choice of the domain. In this section, I want to show how these two issues relate to the problems surveyed above. Starting with the descriptive-classificatory approach, its basic aim is to provide an orderly or systematic description of the phenomena in its domain. It starts from the observation that no phenomenon is totally different from every other phenomenon, but that sets of phenomena seem to be similar in some respects. These similarities can be exploited for purposes of description: they allow the theorist to describe the phenomena in sets or classes rather than individually – which lends generalizing power to the theory. To the extent that phenomena with similar properties tend to behave in similar ways, this approach is also vested with a certain amount of predictive or explanatory power, though this is not usually seen as in its first interest. (Ernst-Autust Gutt, 2004: 17-18)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of two paragraphs, each of which is composed of four sentences. In the first paragraph, all the four sentences are complex in structure, of which the first is composed of a main clause and an object clause; the second is composed a main clause and an object clause with an attributive clause further embedded; the third is composed of a main clause and two coordinate clauses, the second of which has two coordinate appositive clause further embedded; and the last is composed of a main clause and an object clause. In the second paragraph, the first sentence is simple in structure; the second sentence is complex in structure, composed of a main clause and two coordinate appositive clauses; the third is a compound complex sentence, composed of two coordinate clauses loosely connected, the second of which has a parenthetic attributive clause embedded; and the last is also a complex sentence composed of a clause-containing prepositional phrase, a main clause and adverbial clause of concession.

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2. Additional complication： In the first paragraph, the first sentence begins with a prepositional phrase; the second sentence begins with an adverb; and fourth sentence begins with a prepositional phrase. In the second paragraph, the first sentence begins with a present participle phrase; the third sentence, as mentioned above, ends with a parenthetic attributive clause; and the last sentence begins with a prepositional phrase with an attributive clause embedded.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： In the first paragraph, the first two and the last sentences are periodic in structure each for the beginning with either a prepositional phrase or an adverb; in the second paragraph, the first, third and last sentences are periodic in structure each for either beginning with a present participle phrase or a prepositional phrase or for embedding a parenthesis, though at the end of the third sentence. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences are somewhat structurally complicated. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are formal in structure for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures. 4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures are frequently used, for example, that these problems are not unrelated, and that they are at least partially conditioned by two basic methodological factors; one is the reliance on a descriptive-classificatory approach to science, and the other is the choice of the domain; orderly or systematic; that no phenomenon is totally different from every other phenomenon, but that sets of phenomena seem to be similar in some respects; sets or classes; in sets or classes rather than individually; and predictive or explanatory.

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5. Lexical cohesive device： Examples can be found as follows: problems and phenomena (with one case in singular form) are repeatedly used; overcome is used in collocation with difficulties; one is used in connection with the other; relate is used as a partial antonym for unrelated; approach is used as a partial synonym for methodological; class is used as a partial repetition for classificatory; similar is used as a partial repetition of similarity, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, summary, modern, science, translation, solve, fundamental, problem, furthermore, believe, particular, difficulty, overcome, research, unrelated, partially, conditioned, methodological, factor, reliance, descriptive, classificatory, approach, domain, section, issue, survey, and many others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 总之，看来，‘现代’的翻译科学不得不解决某些基本问题。更有甚者，有理由相信，这些问题不是进一步进行研究就可以解决的特定问题。看来，这些问题不是互不关联的，它们至少被两个基本的方法因素部分制约：其一是依赖做科学的描写分类法；二是范围的选择。本节，我将揭示这两个问题与上面探讨过的问题的相互关系。 从描写分类法开始，它的基本目的是在其范围内为现象提供有序的或系统的描述。它从没有一种现象与任何另一种现象完全不同、许多翻译现象看来在某些方面彼此雷同的认识开始。为了描述的目的，可以对这些雷同进行探讨：它们能使理论工作者描述许多或各类现象而不是一个一个地描述——这能使理论具有概括力。特性雷同的现象其作用方式也雷同，在这种程度上，这种方法也具有一定量的预见力或解释力，虽然这一点通常在概括力中难以看出来。 Comments: Basically, the present translation is somewhat readable, coherent and authentic with some minor readjustments made of the original. However, the clauses and sentences can be made more economic and coherent; the second sentence in the second paragraph can be reorganized with shorter components; and what follows can be retranslated to some extent.

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B) Translation 2: 总之，‘现代’的翻译科学看来得解决一些基本问题。有理由相信，这些问题不是进一步进行研究就可以解决的具体问题，不是互不关联的，至少受两个基本方法因素的部分制约：一是依靠做科学的描写分类法；二是选择范围。本节将讨论这两个问题与上面探讨过的问题的相互联系。 首先讨论描写分类法。其基本目的是有序地、系统地描述所述范围之内的现象。一开始，大家都看到，没有一种现象与任何另一种现象完全不同，许多翻译现象在某些方面看上去大同小异。这些共性可用于描述目的：能使理论工作者描述成套的或各类现象而不是一一分别描述，因而能使理论具有概括力。特性雷同的现象作用方式也大同小异，因此，分类描写也具有一定的预见力或解释力，虽然这一点通常在概括力中难以分辨出来。 Comments: In the present translation, readjustments are made when有理由相信，这些问题不是进一步进行研究就可以解决的具体问题，不是互不关联的，至少受两个基本方法因素的部分制约：一是依靠做科学的描写分类法；二是选择范围 is substituted for the two sentences in the previous translation with better coherence; 一开始，大家都看到，没有一种现象与任何另一种现象完全不同，许多翻译现象在某些方面看上去大同小异is substituted for the previous with more readability; 特性雷同的现象作用方式也大同小异，因此，分类描写也具有一定的预见力或解释力，虽然这一点通常在概括力中难以分辨出来is used with ideas more explicitly expressed, and so on.

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C) Translation 3: 总之，‘现代’的翻译科学得解决一些基础问题。有理由相信，这些问题不是进一步研究就可以解决的具体问题，不是互不关联的，至少部分地受两个基本方法的制约：依靠科学的描写分类法与选定合适的范围。本节将讨论这两个问题与上述问题的相互联系。 首先讨论描写分类法，以便对所属范围内的现象进行有序的、系统的描述。大家看到，现象与现象之间并不迥然不同，许多现象在某些方面总是大同小异。借助这些共性，理论工作者就可以对现象进行分类描述而无需分别描述，因而使理论具有概括力。特性雷同的现象作用方式也大同小异，因此，分类描写也具有一定的预见力或解释力，虽然通常在探讨概括力时未必显现出来。 Comments: In preparing the present translation, efforts are made as follows: first, 依靠科学的描写分类法与选定合适的范围, a more concise expression, is used as a substitute for the previous; second, 首先讨论描写分类法，以便对所属范围内的现象进行有序的、系统的描述is an expression more concise and coherent, based on the combination of the two sentences in the previous translation; third, 现象与现象之间并不迥然不同，许多现象在某些方面总是大同小异is now a neatly parallel structure; fourth, 借助这些共性，理论工作者就可以对现象进行分类描述而无需分别描述，因而使理论具有概括力is, to some extent, a new translation; and fifth, 虽然通常在探讨概括力时未必显现出来is a clause with partially new wordings.

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100 Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. When Horace, for instance, speaks of “faithful translator,” he has the person in mind, much more so than the work that person produces. Translators, in Horace’s understanding, thrive on the trust their patron and their public put in them. They do not have to translate “word for word” because both patron and audience literally “take their word” at face value. Victor Hugo describes the other extreme: “When you offer a translation to a nation, that nation will almost always look on the translation as an act of violence against itself.” Translations can be potentially threatening precisely because they confront the receiving culture with another, different way of looking at life and society, a way that can be seen as potentially subversive, and must therefore be kept out. (Andre Lefevere (ad), 2004: 14)

1) Analysis of the original:: 

1) Analysis of the original: A) Grammatical analysis: 1. Sentence structure： The selection is composed of three paragraphs, of which the first two are each composed of three sentences while the last is composed of two sentences. In the first paragraph, the first two are simple sentences while the last is a complex sentence, composed of main clause, whose subject and predicate alike each have an attributive clause embedded and at the end of the predicate, there is another attributive clause, beginning with a preposition, further embedded. In the second paragraph, the one in the middle is a simple sentence while the two others are both complex in structure. Of the two complex sentences, the first is composed of an adverbial clause of time, a main clause and an elliptic adverbial clause of comparison, which in turn has an attributive clause further embedded. The other sentence is composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of reason. The two sentences in the last paragraph are both complex in structure. Of the two, the first is composed of a main clause and a direct speech in apposition to the noun phrase immediately before it, and the direct speech in turn is composed of an adverbial clause of time and a main clause. The other sentence is composed of a main clause and an adverbial clause of reason with an attributive clause further embedded at the end of the sentence.

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2. Additional complication： The first two sentences in the second paragraph each have a parenthetic structure embedded, and the first sentence begins with an adverbial clause of time; of the two sentences in the last paragraph, the first has a direct speech and the other has an appositive phrase embedded after with another, followed by another appositive phrase, which contains an attributive clause.

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B) Stylistic analysis: 1. Periodicity： The three sentences in the first paragraph are all loose in structure although the clause-containing subject in the last sentence keeps the important information further back. In the second paragraph, the first two sentences are periodic in structure either for the beginning with an adverbial clause together with a short parenthesis or for the embedding of a parenthesis. In the third paragraph, the direct speech in the first sentence is periodic in structure for it begins with an adverbial clause of time, but the sentence itself is not so structured; and in the second sentence, the appositive clauses arranged in succession presents some impression of periodicity. 2. Structural complication： All the sentences in the selection, except for the first two, are somewhat structurally complicated. 3. Structural formality： All the sentences are structurally formal for their grammatical completeness and freedom from colloquial structures.

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4. Parallel structure： In the selection, parallel structures can be found, for example, themselves and their culture; their patron and their public; word for word; patron and audience; different way of looking at life and society, a way that…; and can be seen as potentially subversive, and must therefore be kept out. 5. Lexical cohesive device： Cases can be easily found, for example, translations, sometimes in singular form, and translators are frequently repeated; they, themselves and their are used or repeatedly used to refer to translators; person, patron, nation and culture are repeated; audience is used as a synonym for public; in the last paragraph, they is used to refer to translations; subversive is used as a synonym for threatening, and so on. 6. Lexical formality： Formal words, including nominalizations, are frequently used, for example, translation, vacuum, translator, culture, understand, influence, translate, instance, speak, faithful, person, produce, understanding, thrive, trust, patron, public, patron, audience, literally, value, and others.

2) Staged translation:: 

2) Staged translation: A) Translation 1: 翻译不是在真空里进行的。译者在一定的文化中在一定的时间里起作用。他们理解自己和他们的文化的方式对其翻译方式产生影响。 例如，当贺拉斯谈论“忠实的译者”的时候，他心目中的人比他生产的译文要忠实得多。在贺拉斯的理解中，译者昌盛于出资人和公众对他们的信任。他们不需要“字对字”地翻译，因为出资人和公众“对译者的文字”都作字面理解。 维克托.雨果描述了另一种极端：“当你将一种译文提供给一个国家，那个国家几乎总是将译文看成是侵犯它的一种举动。”译文可能具有潜在的威胁性，正是因为他们将接受译文的文化与另一种文化对立起来，另一种文化是观察生活与社会的另一种方式，这种方式可能被看成具有潜在的颠覆性，因此必须排除在外。 Comments: The present translation is, generally speaking, somewhat readable, coherent and authentic. But due to following the original strictly, we have produced some awkward expressions if not clauses or sentences. For example, 译者在……起作用; 在贺拉斯的理解中; 另一种文化是观察生活与社会的另一种方式, and others. Besides, 他in比他生产的译文is ambiguous; 可能被看成in这种方式可能被看成具有潜在的颠覆性is vague enough.

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B) Translation 2: 翻译不是在真空里进行的。译者在一定的文化中在一定的时间里翻译。他们如何理解自己和自己的文化的对其翻译方式产生影响。 例如，当贺拉斯谈论“忠实的译者”的时候，他心目中的人要比他翻译的译作忠实得多。在贺拉斯看来，译者的兴盛在于出资人和公众对他们的信赖。他们不需要“字对字”地翻译，因为出资人和公众“对译作”都作字面理解。 维克多.雨果描述了另一种极端：“当你将译作提供给某国，该国几乎总是将译作看作侵犯举动。”译作可能具有潜在的威胁性，正因为他们将接受文化与另一种文化对立起来，另一种文化以不同的方式观察生活与社会，这种方式可能被看成具有潜在的颠覆性，因此必须拒之门外。 Comments: Almost all the weak points mentioned in the above comments have been improved on here in the present translation. However, from the viewpoint of coherence, the three sentences in the first paragraph of the present translation are not coherent enough他in要比他翻译的译作忠实得多remains ambiguous; the meaning of 出资人和公众“对译作”都作字面理解is not explicit enough; 译者的兴盛在于出资人和公众对他们的信赖sounds a little exotic, and so on.

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C) Translation 3: 翻译不是在真空里进行的。译者在一定的文化时空中从事翻译活动，其看待自己和自身文化的方式影响其翻译方法。 例如，当贺拉斯谈论“忠实的译者”的时候，他想象中的人要比此人翻译的译作更为忠实。在贺拉斯看来，由于出资人和公众信赖他们，译者才得以安身立命。他们不需要“字对字”地翻译，因为出资人和公众“对译作”都坚信不疑。 维科多.雨果讲述了另一极端：“你为某国翻译，几乎总被看成是侵犯。”认为译作具有潜在的威胁，是因为人们将接受文化与外来文化对立起来，而外来文化以不同方式看待生活与社会，可能就有人认为具有潜在的颠覆性，必须拒之门外。 Comments: In the present translation, the last two sentences are readjusted and combined into one for better coherence; 他想象中的人要比此人翻译的译作更为忠实is substituted for the previous translation for the disambiguation of the ambiguous term in the previous translation; 由于出资人和公众信赖他们，译者才得以安身立命; 出资人和公众“对译作”都坚信不疑; 你为某国翻译，几乎总被看成是侵犯; 认为译作被具有潜在的威胁;and是因为翻译将接受文化与外来文化对立起来are substituted for the previous counterparts for more explicit expression of ideas in the original.

Exercises:: 

Exercises: 96 In the new millennium translation scholarship will continue to emphasize the unequal power relationships that have characterized the translation process. But whereas in earlier centuries this inequality was presented in terms of a superior original and an inferior copy, today the relationship is considered from other points of view that can best be termed post-colonial. Parallel to the exciting work of Indian, Chinese and Canadian translation scholars, writers such as Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes and Haroldo and Augusto de Campos have called for a new definition of translation. Significantly, all these writers have come from countries located in the continent of South America, from former colonies engaged in reassessing their own past. Arguing for a rethinking of the role and significance of translation, they draw parallels with the colonial experience. For just as the model of colonialism was based on the notion of a superior culture taking possession of an inferior one, so an original was always seen as superior to its ‘copy’. Hence the translation was doomed to exist in a position of inferiority with regard to the source text from which it was seen to derive. (Susan Bassnett, 2004: 5)

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97 The work of translating in an ‘era of feminism’, in an era powerfully influenced by feminist thought, has had an acute effect on translation practice. First, translators have sought out contemporary women’s writing in order to translate it into their own cultures. Because of the experimental nature of much of this work, they have had to deal with enormous technical challenges in the translations. Second, because the women’s movement has defined language as a powerful political instrument, many women working in an ‘era of feminism’ also face issues of intervention and censorship in translation: When and how do politicized translators ‘correct’ a text? To what extent does the translator’s role become overtly political? And third, the interest in lineage of important women writers and thinkers has created an impressive corpus of translated ‘lost’ works; due to the fact that these texts have only now been recuperated, the work of the translator moves well beyond traditional bounds of translation and incorporates annotation and criticism. (Luise von Flotow, 2004: 14)

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98 The approach via polysystems and cultural semiotics throws the field of study wide open. By systematically placing canonized products and models in relation to a more fluid and pluriform periphery, a range of traditionally neglected texts and forms comes into view. Translation is recognized as a cultural practice interacting with other practices in a historical continuum. The workings of translation norms, the manipulative nature of translation and the effects of translation can all be slotted into a broader sociocultural setting. The study of translation becomes the study of cultural history. Broadly speaking the theory seems able to cope with this expansion, indeed it invites it. However, as the last few pages have shown, studies of this nature are not only ferociously abstract and depersonalized, they also run the risk of being ultimately deterministic. There are two reasons for this. One is that polysystem theory is aware of the social embedding of cultural systems but in practice takes little heed of actual political and social power relations or more concrete entities such as institutions or groups with real interests to look after. For all its emphasis on models and repertoires, polysystem theory remains thoroughly text-bound. Literature and culture in general are described as sites of conflict, but the stakes remain invisible, and the struggle is waged by competing norms and models rather than by individuals or collectives who stand to gain or lose something by the outcome. As a result, the processes of change and reversal become self-propelling and cyclical: the canonized center does what it does, and when it is overrun a new center repeats the pattern, as if the whole thing were on automatic pilot. (Theo Hermans, 2004: 117-118)

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99 This explains why translation theories have tended to set up classification schemes at every level, from linguistic features via text typologies to sets of purposes: this approach relies on classification schemes because they are the only basic theoretical tools it has. All the generalizations are made in terms of classes, hence in order to be covered by the theory, each phenomenon in the domain must be assigned to a class. This in turn means that the classificatory framework must be comprehensive enough to include all phenomena in its domain, and this explains why the number of classes and classification schemes in translation theory have kept increasing as new sets of phenomena were found to be relevant to translating: for these phenomena to fall under some generalization they must first be assigned to classes – which requires the setting up of additional appropriate classification schemes. The resulting proliferation of classificatory frameworks is further aggravated by the choice of domain, which is seen as consisting either of translated texts viewed in direct relation to the original texts (the product perspective) or of the processes and operations that lead from the original to the translated text (process perspective). (Ernst-Autust Gutt, 2004: 18)

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100 The real sense, which many translators try to express according to their personal judgment and ability, is not firmly established when it is not established in the original language, since a translator very often misses the real sense when he is not very learned. That is why you should try to learn the languages from which the scriptures were translated into Latin, or you should at least stick to the work of such translators who have rendered their own original word for word. Such literal translations are insufficient, of course, but they can serve to show whether or not the translations of those who wan to translate more according to the sense than according to the way the words are phrased are correct. For often not just individual words are translated, but also syntactical features that are simply not acceptable in Latin usage, if one wants to preserve the traditional style used by Latin writers up to now. Such a literal translation is often not exactly a hindrance to understanding, but it does irritate those readers who enjoy the content more when its verbal expression has managed to preserve a certain purity. (Andre Lefevere (ad), 2004: 15)