Sea Power and Maritime Affairs: Sea Power and Maritime Affairs Lesson 11: The U.S. Navy and the World at War, 1914-1918


“Entangling Alliances”: “Entangling Alliances” Triple Entente (Allied Powers): Great Britain, Russian Empire, France Plus: Italy (1915-16) U.S. (1917) Japan (Pacific) Triple Alliance (Central Powers): German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman (Turk) Empires Plus: Bulgaria


Major Events: Major Events July 1914: Heir to the Austrian throne Archduke Ferdinand assassinated July 28: Austria declares war on Serbia July-August: Serbia/Russia mobilize against Austria Russia had a mutual defense pact with Germany.


Major Events: Major Events Imperialistic Germany sees its chance & declares war: 1 Aug: Russia 3 Aug: France 4 Aug: Belgium Germany’s war plan called for a two-front war to overwhelm France before Russian could fully mobilize. Britain declares war on Germany


German Navy: German Navy Germany Built a large Mahanian battle fleet in order to bring about an alliance with Britain which would leave France open to invasion Plan backfired and led to a building race with Britain Of note, Germany had less than 50 U-boats at the start of the war


Royal Navy: Royal Navy Britain Expanded building program Had consolidated ships into a reduced number of fleets with the home-fleet being the largest When war began, an idea was to use the added advantage of the mobility of the Navy to hit continental targets (similar to Pitt’s Plan during the seven years war). However, it was later concluded that a continental army was necessary to defeat Germany. Result: Both Germany and Britain had large battle fleets at the start of the War


Surface Action: Strategies: Surface Action: Strategies Britain Relied heavily on its Navy = a major naval defeat could prove disastrous Blockade with stronger Grand Fleet Germany Mines and forts for coastal defense Hopes for war of attrition Guard the German Coast Weaken the British Fleet Both Germany and Britain were disciples of Mahan


British Royal Navy: British Royal Navy First Lord of the Admiralty Similar to U.S. Secretary of the Navy Winston Churchill First Sea Lord Similar to today’s U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Sir John Fisher


Slide9: Grand Fleet Admiral Sir John Jellicoe Sea-lift of British Army to France “Distant” blockade of Germany Avoid German mines and torpedo boats near the coast Scapa Flow - Main Grand Fleet base in the Orkney Islands Goal: Destroy High Seas Fleet in a large engagement


German Imperial Navy: German Imperial Navy High Seas Fleet Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz Numerically inferior to the British Grand Fleet North Sea defenses: Mines U-boats (unterseeboots) - submarines Not used for commerce raiding early in war Goal: Defeat portions of the Grand Fleet in small engagements “Fleet in Being” Threatens Allied operations by its presence in port Ineffective commerce raiding by German cruisers


Major Naval and Maritime Events Preceding WWI: Major Naval and Maritime Events Preceding WWI Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfare Lusitania sunk by U-boat (May 1915) ANZAC landing Gallipoli (1915)


Gallipoli Campaign - 1915: Gallipoli Campaign - 1915 German-led Ottoman Turk Fleet Closes Dardanelles - Entrance to the Black Sea Allied line of communication with Russia is cut Winston Churchill: Advocate of amphibious assault on Gallipoli Peninsula Objective: Constantinople Admiral Sir John Fisher First Sea Lord resigns in protest Dardanelles Mines in sea lanes Guns emplaced on shore covering the straits manned by the Ottoman Turk Army


Campaign for Constantinople: Campaign for Constantinople Was a plan to open supply route to Russia First attempt was to drive up the Dardenelles Second attempt was an amphibious assault on Gallipoli Failures to make any progress led to British Evacuation and revolution in Russia


GallipoliCampaign1915: Gallipoli Campaign 1915 Winston Churchill proposes opening supply route to Russia through the Black Sea.


18 March 1915 Naval Action: 18 March 1915 Naval Action


Allied Landings25 April 1915: Allied Landings 25 April 1915


Allied RetreatfromGallipoliNovember-December 1915: Allied Retreat from Gallipoli November-December 1915


Campaign for Constantinople: Campaign for Constantinople ANZAC Army Corps Mustafa Kemal commands Turk counter-attack Failure due to: Mismanagement, hesitation & delay Use of inadequate minesweepers Inability of NGFS Underestimation of Turks Sheer hard luck


Failure of Allied Assault: Failure of Allied Assault USMC studies lesson and mistakes of Gallipoli Lessons learned in defeat: Unity of command Control of local waters Element of surprise Rehearsal Beach reconnaissance Shore bombardment Specialized landing craft Ship-to-shore movement Aggressive exploitation of the beachhead Commitment of reserves Winston Churchill resigns in failure


Course of the War - 1915: Course of the War - 1915 Ground war = continued stalemate on fronts British blockade of German coast continues Britain - Stop, search, and seize policy Declaration of London - 1909 German counter blockade of Great Britain International Prize Law - Q-Boats Unrestricted Submarine Warfare - February 1915 “Ocean War Zone” Lusitania - May 1915 Woodrow Wilson - U.S. Protests against Unrestricted Submarine Warfare - Germany suspends Give up submarine’s advantage of stealth or risk US entry into the war


Course of the War - 1916: Course of the War - 1916 Ground war in France = continued stalemate German U-boats continue commerce raiding Very effective, especially in Mediterranean Sea February 1916 - Resume Unrestricted Submarine Warfare Sussex sunk March 1916 - Wilson protests again Tirpitz relieved of duty Kaiser Wilhelm imposes restrictions on U-boat attacks again British raids on German coast New German High Seas Fleet commander: Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer Commences raids on British coast


U-boats: U-boats


Commerce Raiding: Commerce Raiding German U-boats threaten to cut off all maritime supply of Great Britain.


War Against Shipping: War Against Shipping First U-boat campaign 1915 Waters around Britain declared a war zone. Destruction of enemy merchants, and warning sent to neutrals Lusitania, Arabic sunk US protest leads to German declaration of immunity for ocean liners to avoid war with US


War Against Shipping: War Against Shipping Second U-boat campaign 1916 Attacks only on armed merchants French unarmed steamer Sussex sunk (March) Sussex sinking leads to German Sussex pledge: All U-boats would conduct attacks IAW prize law Prize laws didn’t work for U-boats


War Against Shipping: War Against Shipping Unrestricted warfare December 1916 With German manpower strained and the blockade beginning to have an effect, Germany was losing the war and U-Boats were the only weapon not yet fully utilized Germany plans to knock out Britain before US aid can be mobilized The Campaign ALMOST worked


War Against Shipping: War Against Shipping British ASW -No effective means of ASW at start of war Decided not to use convoys Blockade, patrol sea lanes, attack German sub bases "Q-ships", mines, nets All efforts proved ineffective Germany sinking 150 ships/month


War Against Shipping: War Against Shipping German Surface Raiders The two most successful Emden Karlsruhe Radio made surface raiding hard because warnings were easily spread. Eventually, all German surface raiders were caught and by 1915 the threat was essentially ended


Major Naval and Maritime Events Preceding: Major Naval and Maritime Events Preceding Sussex pledge to restrict submarine warfare (Mar 1916) Battle of Dogger Bank (Jan 1915) Battle of Jutland (May-June 1916)


Surface Action: North Sea: Surface Action: North Sea Heligoland Bight 28 Aug 1914 British ambush, attempted German counter ambush British victory results in cautious use of the German fleet German U-boats avenge defeat: British now fear U-boats Dogger Bank 24 Jan 1915 British warned of German Sortie after Russian divers find a German code book. Germans attempt another ambush & counter ambush British victory but could have been much more. Victory was lessened by poor communications


Battle of Dogger Bank- 1915: Battle of Dogger Bank- 1915


Admiral Sir John Jellicoe: Admiral Sir John Jellicoe Battle of Jutland


Battle of Jutland31 May - 1 June 1916: Battle of Jutland 31 May - 1 June 1916 High Seas Fleet sorties to attack merchant shipping to Norway Jellicoe intercepts in the North Sea with Grand Fleet Battle cruisers used for scouting Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet “Crosses the T” of the High Seas Fleet High Seas Fleet maneuvers back to port at night


Battle of Jutland31 May - 1 June 1916: Battle of Jutland 31 May - 1 June 1916 Largest naval battle to date ends in a tactical draw Only large fleet action of the war Last great battle between battleship fleets Jellicoe fails to win a victory Afraid of stern chase over mines/submarines Turned away from torpedoes Would not risk fighting at night Minor strategic importance to the outcome of the war Tactical lesson: Speed and long-range gunfire outstripped the commander's means of observation and control of forces Stalemate: German fleet retires for war; German morale boost


Battle of Jutland: Battle of Jutland


Crossing or Capping the T: Crossing or Capping the T Fleet B Fleet A Fleet A has the advantage: All gun turrets can be used simultaneously. Able to deliver raking fire (from bow to stern) against enemy ships - higher probability of damage. Fleet B is at a disadvantage: Aft turrets are masked by ships’ superstructures. Vision obstructed by smoke from engine exhaust and friendly gunfire and fires caused by enemy gunfire.


U.S. Enters World War I: U.S. Enters World War I Germany announces Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. (February 1915) Lusitania (May 1915) Sussex (March 1916) Germany resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (January 1917) Calculated risk: U.S. unable to affect war for at least one year Need to cut off British food supplies


Slide38: U.S. declares war (6April 1917) U.S. Navy - First rate power, BUT: Unprepared for anti-submarine warfare Planned for fleet engagement in Caribbean Sea


Backing Up: Backing Up US Naval strategy in World War I– period of Neutrality (August 1914-1917) Woodrow Wilson: The United States will remain: “neutral in thought and deed.” Favorable balance of payments for U.S. with Europe Desire to trade with Allied and Central Powers


U.S. in World War I: U.S. in World War I Naval matters enter American consciousness Wilson converts to pro-Navy viewpoint Forty-eight capital ships planned for U.S. Navy by 1920 Naval Construction act of 1916 Impact of Jutland Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt Experiences will influence World War II policies


Slide41: Causes for U.S. entrance on side of Allies Shift in European balance of power Unrestricted Submarine Warfare Cultural and economic ties to Allied nations Wilson sees chance for peace in outcome


Course of the War - 1917: Course of the War - 1917 U.S. Navy Plans Atlantic (defeat the submarine) Troop Transport Reduce Emphasis on battleships Submarine chasers Merchant Ships Mine laying Integrated into convoy system 20-25 merchants and 6-8 destroyers Change from “hunt-and-kill” patrols to a convoy system Rear Admiral William Sims, USN - convoy proponent Admiral Sir John Jellicoe Appointed First Sea Lord, Chief of Naval Staff Convoys proved to be more effective in countering U-boats


Slide43: Allied Convoys in the Atlantic


U.S. Navy's Major Contributions: U.S. Navy's Major Contributions Convoys :Admiral Sims Takes no longer to form than to “sanitize” shipping lanes Scheduling allows efficient use of ports Merchant officers capable of station keeping 12 Independent ships sunk for every 1 sunk in convoy


Slide45: Effects of Allied Convoys in the Atlantic


End of the War (1918): End of the War (1918) Failure of Constantinople campaign leads to Russian collapse on Eastern Front Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 Germany tries last desperate attack on Western Front using reinforcements from the East. U.S. presence on Western Front allows Allies to repulse Germany in second Battle of the Marne


End of the War (1918): End of the War (1918) Blockade of Germany took its toll US advocated convoy system defeats U-boat threat Western front pushed into Germany Revolution imminent, Kaiser abdicates Germany surrenders November 11, 1918 Armistice Day (Veteran’s Day)


New Weapons of Naval Warfare: New Weapons of Naval Warfare Submarines Germany lost 187 U-boats, however: Sank 5,234 merchant ships Sank 10 battleships, 20 destroyers, and 9 submarines Allied & Neutral Ships Lost: 1914-18 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 3 396 964 2,439 1,035 Aviation Anti-submarine warfare Early attempts at power projection: Strikes on German naval bases Did not practice anti-surface warfare


Effect of World War I on Mahanian Theory: Effect of World War I on Mahanian Theory Support in two areas: Commercial antagonism and rivalry cause war Faith in the battle fleet for command of the sea Unrestricted Submarine Warfare's implications ignored Commerce raiding can affect the course of the war Importance of convoy system to protect against submarine attacks


Slide50: Discussion… Next time: Naval Strategy and National Policy, 1919-1941