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Modes of Writing: Description: Modes of Writing: Description Two kinds:
Objective one: only facts given, no place to imagination. For example, “He is 20 years old. He is a young man of medium height.”
Impressionistic one: impression given as well as facts given. For example, “His eye are very large and alive, with long black lashes, and they seem to be smiling at you all the time.”
Comparison : Comparison Objective one:
To picture the aspects of the object as a thing in itself;
A report, to tell readers what you describe;
To begin with a brief general picture, then develop one part after another Impressionistic one:
To relying on the mood or feelings the object calls up;
To convey or arouse readers’ emotion.
But in actual writing, they are not all clearly defined.: But in actual writing, they are not all clearly defined. Of people:
1. Introduction (who?)
2. Physical description
3. Clothing
4. Personality
5. Conclusion
Description: Description Of places & objects:
See
Hear
Smell
Feel
Taste
To make clear: 1. The order; 2. Only what you see, or others; 3. Objective or impressionistic?
Description: Description Action & Events
No underlined story (like in narration) to hold your essay together, so you have to a central idea instead;
3 parts: introduction; body; & conclusion.
Description: Description Moment (excitement, happiness, fear, embarrassment)
As vivid as possible;
Like taking a photo;
Accurate, detailed picture;
The setting, the details, & the mood.
Description of a Moment: Description of a Moment Visiting a Supermarket
Visiting a supermarket is like taking a trip around the world. Over here is a mountain of oranges from sunny Florida. Over there are heads of lettuce from California. There are also sardines from Norway and Portugal. In the next aisle there is mustard from Germany, soy sauce from Hong Kong, and wine from Chile and Argentina.
Description: Description Situation (how to do something)
Make your readers see, hear, feel, smell, & taste as you did in actual situations;
Space order, time order, or climactic order;
Description of Situation: Description of Situation Fine Art Goes
Small neighborhood bakeries are being replaced by large bread factories. As a result, the fine art of making tasty, nutritious bread is also fading away.
Slide11: The flour used in making bread is no longer whole and wholesome. Instead, it is bleached white, enriched with unnecessary vitamins, and made flavorless. Added chemicals and preservatives give it a fresh look.
Description of Situation: Description of Situation A few traditional bakeries remain, usually in the ethnic neighborhoods of larger cities, but even they now use the same kind of flour as the commercial bakeries do. The old kind of bread, once an important part of our diet, is disappearing.
Narration : Narration Telling a story, but not limited to storytelling. According to the purpose, two kinds:
Narrative report: an exact account of what happened. For example: a report of some national event appearing in a newspaper, the facts of a crime given in a police court, the details of an traffic accident, or the record of a business meeting.
Continued : Continued To state the facts quite correctly and the most suitable order—usually the order in which they happened.
Unnecessary description & imaginative impression have no place. For example:
Ship Accident in Channel No Casualties: Ship Accident in Channel No Casualties Yesterday evening two ships collided in thick fog in the English Channel. One was a cargo boat carrying fruit, and apparently bound for London. The other was a British cross channel ferry on its regular run from Dover (多佛,英港口) to Dunkirk (敦克尔克,法港口). ( pre-event background knowledge given)
Continued: Continued According to eye-witnesses neither of the vessels was going very fast at the time of the accident. However, because of the weather conditions, the captains did not realize the danger until only seconds before the collision took place. Consequently, there was insufficient time for them to take avoiding action. ( key-event in details, also supports to thesis idea)
Continued: Continued Fortunately, there were no casualties among the crews (全体工作人员) or the passengers, but both ships were holed close to the waterline. In spite of the damage the two ships managed to reach the nearby port of Dunkirk under their own steam. (key-event)
Continued: Continued A spokesman for the port authorities said that a committee of enquiry would be set up to ascertain the cause of the collision. (post-event)
Story : Story The intention: to interest the readers, to make them want to go on reading;
So, choose the details helping create the impression he wants to give; build up interest to an important moment & include some description to make the story more vivid. For example:
Too late: Too late The plane was late and detectives were waiting at the airport all the morning. They were expecting a valuable parcel of diamonds from South America. A few hours earlier, someone had told the police that thieves would try to steal the diamonds. (pre-event, scene)
Continued: Continued When the plane arrived, some of the detectives were waiting inside the main building while others were waiting on the airfield. Two men took the parcel off the plane and carried it into the Customs House. Whiles two detectives were keeping guard at the door, two others opened the parcel. (key-event:descriptions given to detectives make the story interesting)
(what would happen ? Can you guess?)
Continued: Continued To their surprise, the precious parcel was full of stones and sand! ( post-event: a surprise ending, climax)
The general plan: The general plan The general plan to write a narration:
1. The purpose: report or story?
2. To select events: pre-event, key-event, post-event.
3. The order: time order or flashback?
4. To select point of view: limited (as a person involved) or omniscient (as an observer, an onlooker )?
Continued: Continued 5. To choose narrative types:
In details? (details that offer explanations or reasons for action, that help the readers visualize the scene, that create a conflict & suspense)
With dialogue? (help bring event to life)
Or with description & personal narration (a few well-selected details can vividly picture the event)?
For example: For example The Chinese New Year
New Near Day is a great occasion for the Chinese. The festival begins, in fact, from the New Year’s Eve when people go to visit the Fair which opens until two or three o’clock in the morning. It is a delightful sight to see the stalls all brightly lit up and filled with all sorts of lovely things. The flower stalls are always the most attractive places. Everyone buys flowers to decorate his home.
Continued: Continued The Fair-goers （购物者） usually do not want to come home until it is very late, and when they do come home, they do not want to go to bed until they cannot stay awake any longer.
Continued: Continued Then the sound of fire crackers ushers in the New Year. Children would be the first to awake and get up. They have been looking forward to this great day since the beginning of the twelfth moon. They can now collect their “red packages” and use
Continued: Continued the money contained therein （在那里）to buy toys of firecrackers. Grown-up people are very busy in the New Year Day. They exchange visits with friends and relatives and busily entertain their guests at home. They are busy but happy and so is everybody.
Exposition : Exposition The mood most frequently used in college courses: English composition, physical laboratory reports, essay examinations, etc. call for logical analysis.
The ways to develop the analysis: examples, comparison, contrast, definition, cause & effect, & logical division.
Example 1: Example 1 “Fat” Food
Americans eat too much fat, and the problem with fat is that it is fattening. Ounce for ounce, fat contains twice as many calories （热能） as protein （蛋白质）and carbohydrates （碳水化合物）do. Being overweight is one of the most common health problems in the United States. Nearly one out of every three Americans is overweight or obese （肥胖）. Obesity increases the risk of many serious diseases, including heart disorders and diabetes （糖尿病）.
Continued: Continued We can cut down on our fat intake in a number of ways. For one thing, we can replace fatty meats like beef and pork with leaner meats like veal （小牛肉）and chicken. We can eat smaller portion, too. We can also use more vegetable sources of protein, such as peas, beans, lentils （扁豆）, nuts, potatoes, and rice. Finally, we can use low-fat dairy products such as skimmed milk （脱脂乳）and pot cheese in place of whole milk and high-fat cheeses. Even a small change in our fat intake can make an enormous difference in our general health over a period of years.
Example 2: Example 2 Fast Food: American Life
Fast-food is becoming a way of life in American. There are pizza shops, hamburger stores, fish and chips stores, and a variety of take-out places. They sell such foods as tacos （玉米面卷）, egg rolls, papaya （木瓜）drinks, and cookies.
Continued: Continued Take the hamburger places, for example. Pedro and his family want a fast burger dinner. Will they have to search for a quick meal? To their surprise, there are four places within a two-block area.
Pedro’s father isn’t sure which one is the best. He asks,”what are the burgers at Joe’s burger Palace like?” only one person knows.
Continued: Continued Jorge says, “they are okay.” so they all agree to go there. He is right, and the family gets a quick, good meal. They are finished in half an hour and have plenty of time for their evening’s plans.
Camera
A camera is like a room with only small round window. There is a dark blind over the window. Light can come into the room only when you pull the blind up. The light will spread all over the room.
Continued: Continued Take out the flat glass from the window, and put in its place a curved lens （镜头）. The lens brings the rays of light together. It focuses the light onto the wall of the room. The light does not spread all over the room.
The rays of light come from an object outside the room. These rays are
Continued: Continued Reflected from the object. When the lens focuses this reflected light on to the wall, we get a picture of the object. This kind of picture is called an image.
The four most important parts of a camera are the lens, the shutter, the lens opening and the film. The lens does the work of window in the room. The shutter does the work of the blind. The lens opening changes the size of the window. We can make it large or smaller. We can let it more or less light.
Continued: Continued The Generation Gap
A few years ago it was fashionable to speak of a generation gap, a division between young people and their elders. Parents complained that children did not show them proper respect and obedience, which children complained that their parents did not understand them at all. What had gone wrong? Why had the generation gap suddenly appeared? Actually, the generation gap has been around for a long time. Many critics argue that it is built into the fabric （结构、构造）of our society.
Continued: Continued One important cause of the generation gap is the opportunity that young people have to choose their own life-styles. In more traditional societies, when children grow up, they are expected to live in the same area as their parents, to marry people that their parents know and approve of, and often to continue the family occupation. In our society, young people often travel great distances for their educations, move out of the family home at an early age, marry or live with the people whom their parents have never met, and choose occupations different from those of their parents.
Continued: Continued In our upwardly mobile society, parents often expect their children to do better than they did: to find better job, to make more money, and to do all the things that they were unable to do. Often, however, the ambitious that parents have for their children are another cause of the division between them. Often, they discover that they have little in common with each other.
Continued: Continued Finally, the speed at which changes take place in our society is another cause of the gap between the generations. In a traditional culture, elderly people are valued for their wisdom, but in our society the knowledge of a lifetime may become obsolete overnight. The young and the old seem to live in two very different worlds, separated by different skills and abilities.
Continued: Continued No doubt, the generation gap will continues to be a feature of American life for some time to come. Its causes are rooted in the freedoms and opportunities of our society, and in the rapid pace at which society changes.
Argument & persuasion & Exposition: Argument & persuasion & Exposition Exposition
To inform readers
An explanation of facts, of the way in which something is done
Not always contain argument & persuasion
Argument & persuasion
To convince readers, to cause a change in thinking
Exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading
An attempt to lead readers to believe the writer’s opinion is correct and to persuade them to change their mind or adopt it as their own
Argument & persuasion: both state an opinion and then attempt to convince readers by offering evidence to support it.: Argument & persuasion: both state an opinion and then attempt to convince readers by offering evidence to support it. Argument
Try to convince readers to accept an attitude or a proposal;
By appealing to reasons. Persuasion
Try to convince readers not only to accept an attitude or proposal, but also to take some action;
By appealing to emotion which moves readers into action.
persuasion:: persuasion: Verbal communication which attempts to bring about a voluntary change in judgment so that the readers or listeners will accept a belief they did not hold before.
I Love You!
Argument & Persuasion: Argument & Persuasion To change readers’ image or thinking or belief, we have to know:
What the readers’ image is, which needs a realistic understanding of our readers, & is usually called audience analysis;
How it may be changed, which needs familiarity with the principal means of persuasion.
A person persuaded must be free to accept or reject the belief or proposal.
Images: shallow-rooted or deep-rooted: Images: shallow-rooted or deep-rooted A shallow-rooted image, many beliefs based on reason are of this kind;
can be removed or changed without any drastic (激烈) effect on the person who holds it, when evidence leads them to conduct that the action is necessary or beneficial; when they are provided the reason given are convincing.
BUT
Continued: Continued Deep-rooted image: so deeply imbedded in the personality that they cannot give them up. To abandon them would be to deny something essential to one’s self-respect, to one’s sense of integrity (正直、完整性）as a person.
We have to respect them & will not dismiss a reader holding them as “stupid” or “stubborn”;
Direct attack on them will only intensify resistance; ridiculing them will create antagonism (对抗性).
The best way is:
Continued: Continued To recognize that we are confronted (面临)by a deep-rooted image which can be changed only by the reader himself, and then only when we can substitute a new image to which we can transfer the emotional commitment given to the original image;
To show that we understand the reader’s position by restating it in terms acceptable to the reader;
To explore possible compromises (妥协) between the reader’s position and our own.
A particular structure of argument & persuasion: A particular structure of argument & persuasion Introduction: how should I begin my essay? (This focuses on the need: a. to capture the audience’s attention; b. to establish the writer as a reliable arguer.)
Explanation of the case under discussion: is my case clearly & fully stated? ( This calls for the writer to make certain that he knows exactly what he is thinking about.)
Continued: Continued 3. Outline of the argument: what is the logic development of my case? (to present our reader With an overview of the argument so that they can follow more easily, particularly if the argument is extremely complex.)
4. Proof: is proof adequate to convince either a specialized or universal reader?
Continued: Continued 5. Refutation: does my argument sufficiently overcome opposing argument? (to think about the other side, what are the weak points of the opposition to ours)
6. Conclusion: does it raise questions that it does not answer?
Argument key to “Disadvantages & Advantages of the Lecturing Method”: Argument key to “Disadvantages & Advantages of the Lecturing Method” For
An economic way to give information to a large number of students;
To give the latest information or views;
More interesting to hear & see a person than to read a book;
A good lecture: to stimulate thought & discussion.
Continued: Continued Against
Often badly delivered & boring;
Often the same lecture used year after year;
Difficult to take notes in a lecture;
Many lecturers: just read aloud their books.
Advantages & Disadvantages of the Lecturing Method: Advantages & Disadvantages of the Lecturing Method Lecturing as a method of teaching is so frequently under attack today from educational psychologists and by students that some justification is needed to retain it. Critics believe that it results in passive methods of learning which tend to be less effective than those which fully engage the learner.
Continued: Continued They also maintain that students have no opportunity to ask questions and must all receive the same content at the same pace, that they are exposed only to one teacher’s interpretation of subject matter which will
Continued: Continued inevitably be biased (结果偏移) and that, anyway, few lectures rise above dullness. Nevertheless, in a number of inquiries (调查) this pessimistic assessment (评价) of lecturing as a teaching method proves not to be general among students although they do fairly often comment on poor lecturing techniques.
Continued: Continued Students praise lectures which are clear, orderly synopses in which basic principles are emphasized but dislike too numerous digressions (离题) or lectures which consist in part of the contents of a textbook.
Continued: Continued Students of science subjects consider that a lecture is a good way to introduce a new subject, putting it in its context, or to present material not yet included in books. They also appreciate its value as a period of discussion of problems and possible solutions with their lecture.
Continued: Continued They do not look for inspiration (灵感)---this is more commonly mentioned by teachers---but arts students look for originality (创意)in lectures. Medical and dental students who have reported on teaching methods, or specifically on lecturing, suggest that there should be fewer lectures or that, at the least more would be unpopular.
Good Health: Good Health Good health is the best treasure to everybody. There is the saying: “Good health…” Because, although money can do many things and enables one to enjoy the world in many ways, it has no meaning to one who is not in good health. For instance, he will not be able to travel by air, he cannot ride on horseback, he cannot swim and enjoy a sun bath on the beach, he cannot play tennis …
Continued: Continued Even if we are learned and should be able to serve our community well, yet without good health, we are as useless as all good-for-nothings. Bad health does not permit us to work.
If we are to make ourselves either to ourselves or to the community, the first importance is to get hold of good health.business writing\businesswriting 2.ppt