SudanBrief historical overview of pre-colonial period to independencePresentation material for educators and activists developed by: UnderstandingSudan.org latest version: March 11, 2006 : Sudan Brief historical overview of pre-colonial period to independence Presentation material for educators and activists developed by: UnderstandingSudan.org latest version: March 11, 2006


Outline: Outline Early history Christian kingdoms Islamization and Arabization Turkiyya and Mahdiyya British rule Independence Islamist rule: 1989-present Civil war in Southern Sudan Darfur


Early History: Early History Numerous Nubian kingdoms along the Nile: Kingdoms of Kush (Cush), known from pottery and Egyptian records Kush conquers Egypt (743bc and rule until 644bc). Largest unified state in the world at the time. Assyrians drive Kush pharoah Taharqo back to 4th cataract (Napata/Merowe) Arabs conquer Egypt 640ad. Treaty of baqt in 641ad with Nubia: Interpretation disputed, but seems to involve tribute from Nubia to Egypt


Christian kingdoms in medieval times: Christian kingdoms in medieval times Alwa, Makuria and Nobatia - three small kingdoms Christianized by 580ad Merge into Kingdom of Dongola, which survives as Nubian Christian kingdom until 1323ad; written records (in Greek) of emissaries from Church and of relations with Caliphs in Damascus attest to important power of Nubia, and tombstones (in Greek) are found in archeological digs Famous frescoes discovered in churches along the Nile when UNICEF rescued archeological treasures after flooding by Aswan High Dam


Conversion to Islam and shift to Arab identity/genealogies: Conversion to Islam and shift to Arab identity/genealogies Process occurred slowly, no conquest or sharp turn, but continual (that is, over centuries, though with long periods of peace) conflict between Egypt and Arabs crossing from Red Sea Holymen, merchants, and camel herders came from Arabia and the Maghreb (Egypt/Libya/Tunisia/Morocco) and settled in Sudan Pilgrims came from West Africa on the overland route of the hajj Local rulers convert to Islam, as does local population


Kingdom of Sennar (Funj): Kingdom of Sennar (Funj) A group known as the Funj conquer the knigdom of Alwa (capital at Soba on the Blue Nile) in 1504 Establish Kingdom of Sennar, rules much of central Sudan (but not Dongola) until 1821 Established court bureaucracy and left a substantial amount of written records European travelers first visited in 1700s and recorded court customs


Egyptian conquest: 1821: Egyptian conquest: 1821 Mohamed Ali ruler of Egypt, nominally a province of Ottoman Empire, but practically autonomous; Egyptian forces successfully conquer much of modern-day Sudan By many accounts, motive and rule is purely “extractive”: slaves, ivory, ostrich feathers, taxes are sent back to Egypt Northern, Muslim, residents of Nile basin, and European adventurers and traders participate in exploitation of Southern regions Beginning of Syrian and Lebanese diaspora in Sudan – clerks and military in Turkiyya, as Egyptian rule is known


Mahdist revolt and Mahdiyya: 1881-1898: Mahdist revolt and Mahdiyya: 1881-1898 The oppression of Egyptian rule (the Turkiyya) leads many to join a holyman named Mohamed Ahmed, who declares himself to be the Mahdi (“the expected one”) in revolt In 1885 defeat British forces in Khartoum The Mahdi dies shortly thereafter, and successor Khalifa Abdullahi rules


British conquest and rule: 1898-1956: British conquest and rule: 1898-1956 British conquer Mahdiyya in revenge for defeat and death of British General Charles Gordon in Khartoum, and to protect southern flank of Egypt (now under British control) and Suez Canal Rule Sudan in co-domini (the Condominium) with Egypt, though British rule through elite Sudan political Service Conquer Darfur in 1916 In reaction to British rule, “Sudanese” identity and Sudanese nationalism is developed


British Rule North Sudan : British Rule North Sudan Indirect rule: Built up authority of different tribal leaders (Nazir and omda and sheikh) If no convenient tribe, then created one by amalgamating smaller tribes Cultivated close relationships with religious leaders (descendants of Mahdi and Khatmiyya); the families of those leaders are still the most important ruling families in Sudan Promoted more schooling in the North – Gordon College – and encouraged a growing Sudanese civil service to replace Egyptians


British Rule – South Sudan: British Rule – South Sudan More direct rule by British District Commissioner (so-called Bog Barons) Southern Policy initiated 1922 Ostensibly to stop southern groups from domination by northerners English and not Arabic became formal language Christian missionary education promoted Northern merchants kicked out Wearing of northern Sudanese jellabiya discouraged


Resources: Resources Ancient Nubian history http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/afs/ht02afs.htm http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm