Evolution of Warfare: Evolution of Warfare The Second World War: North Africa to Normandy Major Joel Bartis MOI


Slide4: "My foreman and I went directly to the pits. Nobody bothered us. Now I heard rifle shots in quick succession from behind one of the earth mounds. The people who had got off the trucks - men, women and children of all ages - had to undress upon the order of an SS man who carried a riding or dog whip. They had to put down their clothes in fixed places, sorted according to shoes, top clothing and undergarments. I saw heaps of shoes of about 800 to 1000 pairs, great piles of under-linen and clothing.


Slide5: Without screaming or weeping these people undressed, stood around in family groups, kissed each other, said farewells, and waited for a sign from another SS man, who stood near the pit, also with a whip in his hand. During the fifteen minutes I stood near, I heard no complaint or plea for mercy. I watched a family of about eight persons, a man and a woman both of about fifty, with their children of about twenty to twenty-four, and two grown-up daughters about twenty-eight or twenty-nine.


Slide6: An old woman with snow white hair was holding a one year old child in her arms and singing to it and tickling it. The child was cooing with delight. The parents were looking on with tears in their eyes. The father was holding the hand of a boy about ten years old and speaking to him softly; the boy was fighting his tears. The father pointed to the sky, stroked his head and seemed to explain something to him. At that moment the SS man at the pit started shouting something to his comrade. The latter counted off about twenty persons and instructed them to go behind the earth mound. Among them was the family I have just mentioned. I well remember a girl, slim with black hair, who, as she passed me, pointed to herself and said, "twenty-three years old."


Slide7: I walked around the mound and found myself confronted by a tremendous grave. People were closely wedged together and lying on top of each other so that only their heads were visible. Nearly all had blood running over their shoulders from their heads. Some of the people shot were still moving. Some were lifting their arms and turning their heads to show that they were still alive. The pit was nearly two-thirds full. I estimated that it already contained about a thousand people. I looked for the man who did the shooting. He was an SS man, who sat at the edge of the narrow end of the pit, his feet dangling into the pit. He had a tommy-gun on his knees and was smoking a cigarette.


Slide8: The people, completely naked, went down some steps which were cut in the clay wall of the pit and clambered over the heads of the people lying there to the place to which the SS man directed them. They lay down in front of the dead or wounded people; some caressed those who were still alive and spoke to them in a low voice. Then I heard a series of shots. I looked into the pit and saw that the bodies were twitching or the heads lying already motionless on top of the bodies that lay beneath them. Blood was running from their necks. The next batch was approaching already. They went down into the pit, lined themselves up against the previous victims and were shot."


Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives The student will comprehend and compare American and British motives in the decision making for the North African and Italian campaigns The student will know the Anglo-American strategic bombing offensive


Reading Assignment: Reading Assignment None


Why North Africa?: Why North Africa? If the allies controlled North Africa they would have a better chance of holding the Mediterranean which was the epicenter of the war. Africa was the gateway to India and other British possessions through the Suez Canal. One of the fears of the allies was that Japan would invade India and Germany North Africa and the two would meet somewhere in between, crippling Britons supply lines from India.


Operation Torch: Operation Torch Numerous ideas for U.S. involvement 25 July 1942, decision to attack North Africa - code named "Torch"


Ports: Ports Four ports were considered for the landing: Casablanca Oran Algiers Bone A landing at Tunis (primary objective) was insupportable with air power


Tactics: Tactics Land on flanks of highly defended main ports Push in from the flanks and rear Night landing Morocco: typical ship-to-shore movement and a 0400 H-hour


Three Landing Sites: Three Landing Sites Casablanca Casablanca served as the railhead for east-west railways across northern Africa Eisenhower felt it would “fall under its own weight” once rest of N. Africa taken Failure to attack Casablanca could result in Spain backing the Germans JCS: Protect Gibraltar


Three Landing Sites (cont): Three Landing Sites (cont) Oran and Algiers also selected important airfields and ports easily supported by air power Bone was not selected Despite proximity to Tunis (final objective) Not supportable by air (distance)


Lessons Learned: Lessons Learned The U.S. Army learned bitter lessons about the inadequacy of its training, equipment, and leadership in the North African campaign. Army Ground Forces acted quickly to ensure that American soldiers would receive more realistic combat training. Higher commanders realized that they could not interfere with their subordinates by dictating in detail the positions of their units.


Lessons Learned: Lessons Learned Troops had to be committed in division-size, combined arms teams, not in driblets. The problem posed by American tanks, outgunned by the more heavily armed and armored German panzers, took far longer to correct. But the artillery established itself as the Army's most proficient arm.


Overall Success: Overall Success Great loss to the German cause U.S., England, France, & Spain drawn together The stage was set for a cross-channel landing at Normandy The decision made to accept only "Unconditional Surrender” First large scale, joint operation under a unified commander - Eisenhower


Overall Success: Overall Success The North African campaigns accomplished more than any European landing could have done in 1942 and probably in 1943. North Africa was a place where the allies were able to engage Germ any with relatively good odds. It did at least pull some German troops off the Russian front.


Check this out: Check this out BBC History - Animation - The North Africa Campaign


Strategic Bombing of Germany: Strategic Bombing of Germany Smashing the German war machine by bomber blitz similar to German tank blitz used in France and Poland Until A-bomb, not sufficiently destructive to end war Needed to be concentrated against most vital targets


Five Main Target Groups: Five Main Target Groups Military group - tactical, not strategic Industrial group - would take years & many aircraft to achieve results Urban group - create demoralization & revolt Resources and energy group - coal, oil, etc. Transportation group - means to transport war materials, i.e., bridges, railroads, etc. Groups (4) and (5) became dominant targets


Even Better: Even Better BBC - History - World War Two Movies


British Approach: British Approach Daylight bombing would bring prohibitive losses and preferred to bomb at night Night bombing was less accurate, but resulted in fewer losses British bombers: long-range payloads, less speed and defensive firepower British fighters: short-range air defense types vice bomber escorts


Slide26: 'How could a nation so proud of its high moral standards drop bombs on women and children?'


U.S. Approach: U.S. Approach Daylight bombing/heavily defended bombers Ultimate invasion of Europe very risky without precision daylight bombing Much more accurate and tighter bomber formations provided bomber protection Also planned on developing new long-range fighter


Industrial bombing: Industrial bombing Bombing of industrial areas did not prove effective Germans actually increased their production base and scattered their plants Bombing would damage building, but seldom damaged the machinery However, difficult for Germany to concentrate on single weapon system, i.e., nuclear, etc.


Urban/civilian Population Bombing: Urban/civilian Population Bombing Effective in reducing morale Minimal effect on stopping the war effort Berlin was 60-70% destroyed, but production continued


Air Support Plan: Air Support Plan Oil plan Submarine pens, aircraft industry, transportation, oil plants, and other war industries Strategic air as an independent weapon Transportation plan disrupt the enemy's ability to move Churchill: high French casualties (80,000) Eisenhower: prediction too high, planned to warn prior to bombing


Air Support Plan (cont): Air Support Plan (cont) Roosevelt backed Eisenhower and the transportation plan Implemented April 1944 with great success By D-day at Normandy, 50% of the rail traffic had been cut lack of roads; trucks ineffective also


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord Most massive and complex military endeavor in history Numerous beaches were studied Normandy or Pas de Calais


Better yet: Better yet BBC - History - World War Two Movies


Pas de Calais - Advantages: Pas de Calais - Advantages Best air cover Shorter sea voyage Best beaches and conditions Close to Dutch and Belgium forts


Disadvantages of Pas de Calais: Disadvantages of Pas de Calais Germans considered it the most likely avenue of approach Beaches were too narrow to support follow on operations


Advantages of Normandy: Advantages of Normandy Good beach conditions Somewhat sheltered Within air cover distance Defenses were not strong Port of Cherbourg could be quickly isolated and captured


Disadvantages of Normandy: Disadvantages of Normandy Exits from the beach were difficult Insufficient numbers of ports were readily available


Eisenhower: Supreme Commander: Eisenhower: Supreme Commander Churchill preferred Marshall Roosevelt chose Eisenhower 5 Dec 1943 The plan was to: Land, build up and break out Two armies; one attacks towards Germany, one to link up with southern invasion Maintain an unrelenting offense Finally - double envelopment of the Ruhr - the heart of industrial Germany


Artificial harbors: Artificial harbors Gooseberry - 70 old ships were sunk offshore to provide a breakwater at 5 different beaches. It took 5 days to emplace them Mulberry - Huge cement harbors sunk in the beach areas and established as a port. Two mulberries were constructed for each army. They took 14 days to erect and ranged in size from 1,672 tons to 6,033 tons


German defenses: German defenses Von Rundstet - No grand strategy, just reaction Commander of the western front Believed in a mobile defense Believed the attack would be at Pas de Calais Rommel Assigned by Hitler improve west coast defense Reported directly to Hitler Believed the attack would be at Normandy The enemy should be defeated on the beach


German Defenses: German Defenses Hitler held four divisions under Supreme Headquarters Central Luftwaffe: 400 but few trained pilots Rommel - lacked mines, concrete, time, and manpower On 5 June, Rommel departed believing landing was delayed by weather


Allied invasion: Allied invasion Conducted with five amphibious and two airborne divisions Amphibious assault was a tactical surprise


D Day Landings: D Day Landings BBC History - Animation - The D-Day Landings


Overlord Animation: Overlord Animation BBC History - Animation - Overlord Campaign


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord On 6 June - as Operation Overlord got underway - some 6,500 vessels landed over 130,000 Allied forces on five Normandy beaches: codenamed Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword.


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord Some 12,000 aircraft ensured air superiority for the Allies - bombing German defenses, and providing cover. The pessimistic predictions that had been made of massive Allied casualties were not borne out. On Utah beach 23,000 troops were landed, with 197 casualties, and most of the 4,649 American casualties that day occurred at Omaha beach, where the landing was significantly more difficult to achieve, meeting with fierce German resistance.


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord Overall, however, the landings caught the Germans by surprise, and they were unable to counter-attack with the necessary speed and strength. Anything that was moving and German was liable to be attacked from the air.


U.S. lst Army (Bradley): U.S. lst Army (Bradley) Night landing over Utah and Omaha beaches Utah Beach landed one mile south of the intended beach no firing - 13 KIAs on D-day V Corps (Cerow): Omaha beach Enemy positions in the bluffs over beach Naval gunfire lifted at 800 yards off beach Over 1,000 KIAs on D-day


The British 2nd Army (Demsey): The British 2nd Army (Demsey) Landed over Gold, Juno, and Sword beaches with the XXX Corps (Bueknall) crossing Gold and the lst Corps (Crocker) over Juno and Sword British forces had an easy assault fewer formidable obstructions Poles and Ukranians, low morale, defending Covered the Allied left flank/prevented German reinforcements


Airborne assault (U.S. Forces): Airborne assault (U.S. Forces) 101st Airborne Division drop scattered - by dawn, only 1,100 of 6,600 mustered 82nd Airborne Division drop almost as bad - only 1/3 strength on D+3 Confusion actually helped the mission Rommel correctly predicted first 24 hours would be decisive Hitler blocked plans to reinforce, still convinced real landing was at Pas de Calais


Airborne assault (cont): Airborne assault (cont) By the end of D-day 82nd held St. Mer Eglise 101st in small pockets Utah Beach secure with entire 4th Division ashore Allies at Omaha held to only 1,500 yards of penetration Germans unable to take advantage of the situation


Results: Results D-day casualties: 2,500 KIAS, Allies expected 10,000 Turning point in the European Theater By 18 June, the U.S. lst Army sealed off Cherbourg Peninsula Caen fell to British on 8 July St. Lo to the U.S. lst Army on 18 July The tide had turned.


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord Despite this, in the weeks following the landings Allied progress was slowed considerably, by the narrow lanes and thick hedgerows of the French countryside. Cherbourg was liberated by the end of June. Paris followed two months later.


Operation Overlord: Operation Overlord Hitler's troubles were compounded by a Russian counterattack in June. This drove 300 miles west to Warsaw, and killed, wounded or captured 350,000 German soldiers. By the end of August the Russians had taken Bucharest. Estonia was taken within months, and Budapest was under siege by the end of the year.


Battle of the Bulge: Battle of the Bulge One glimmer of light for Germany came in the Ardennes, in France, where in December a German counteroffensive - the Battle of the Bulge - killed 19,000 Americans and delayed the Allies' march into Germany.


Next Session Learning Objectives: Next Session Learning Objectives Know and review Japanese strategy in the Pacific Comprehend and assess the impact of Pearl Harbor on American political and military thinking Know and trace the development of the dual American command system in the Pacific Comprehend and evaluate the island-hopping campaign in bringing about Japan’s defeat Know and review the American decision to employ the atomic bomb and assess its impact on Japan’s acceptance of unconditional surrender