The Later Republic

The Later Republic: 

The Later Republic The Volatility of Reform

A time of ferment: 

A time of ferment The wars since the mid-3rd century had created great social changes in Rome and Italy. There was discontent among a number of groups, and particularly among former small landowners who provided the bulk of Rome’s soldiers. Roman soldiers were required to serve for the duration of a campaign, leaving their farms in the hands of wives and children. Bankruptcy was frequent, debts were overwhelming and farmers frequently were forced to sell out to wealthy upper class elites. These wealthy folk formed the farms into large estates called latifundia. Now that grain could be more cheaply shipped from Sardinia or Spain than overland from the Italian interior, farms became transformed. Some latifundia became pleasure estates. Some became boutique farms producing lucrative, but risky, crops of wine grapes and olives.

Homeless Veterans: 

Homeless Veterans Some lands were taken by the Roman state during time of war, to be sold or rented after the war was over. Many war veterans lost their lands and mingled in with the urban poor and unemployed. Sinking the small farms meant losing a valuable traditional source of dependable fighting men. The matter of dealing with the landlessness of war veterans became a social problem high on the agenda of the plebeian assemblies. This issue energized the brief careers of the Gracchus brothers toward the end of the second century BC.

Tiberius Gracchus: 

Tiberius Gracchus Tiberius Gracchus came from a distinguished Roman family. His grandfather was Scipio Africanus, and his mother was the great Cornelia! In 137 he was quaestor under consul Gaius Hostilius Mancinus during the Numantian war in which a large Roman army was entrapped by the Celtiberian tribesmen. Tiberius is the one who saved the army from annihilation by persuading the Numantians to accept a treaty of peace. Tiberius’ brother-in-law, Scipio Aemilianus, embarassed Tiberius by persuading the senate to nullify the treaty. Though despised by the patrician families in the senate, Tiberius became a hero to the plebeians, who elected him Tribune of the People in 133.

Lex Sempronia Agraria: 

Lex Sempronia Agraria Tiberius noticed that farms were being incorporated into large estates and worked by slaves, rather than the previous farms worked by the owners themselves. Tiberius, without consulting the full senate, proposed a new law to the Plebeian Assembly called Lex Sempronia agraria. It passed. This law was based on the Licinian Laws of 367 which theoretically limited the size of farms to 500 jugera (about 320 acres). The government was directed to confiscate any lands it had taken in previous wars that was being held by the government or new owners in parcels of more than 320 acres. Some provision was made for up to two heirs, but generally the land in excess of 320 acres was to be turned back to the government for resettlement of war veterans on tracts averaging about 20 acres. Senators bribed the second tribune, Octavius, to veto the legislation. Tiberius, smelling something fishy, had him removed for ignoring the will of his constituency. The Assembly feared for Tiberius’ safety and provided him with an escort.

Fear and Loathing: 

Fear and Loathing The Senate said it was broke and could not provide funds for the commission charged with implementing Tiberius’ laws. When Attalus of Pergamum died in 133 and left the country to Rome, Tiberius preempted the largess to pay the commission. The senate was furious, believing only they had the right to manage the state treasury. Tiberius had also made mortal enemies of the friends of Octavian, who were determined to impeach him for using illegal force against a tribune of the people. Tiberius continued his high-handed ways by ignoring the unwritten rule of not standing for reelection to the tibunate. He ran again in 132 on a platform of admission of allies to Roman citizenship, opening up the option of serving as jurors to members of non-senatorial families, and shortening terms of military service, all of which threatened the elites.

A fateful day: 

A fateful day On the day Tiberius stood for election he entered the Forum with an armed guard. Voting was interrupted by violence. Tiberius was warned that he was being threatened with the sentence for tyranny. Senators and their supporters, led by Scipio Nascia, crashed the meeting to prevent Tiberius’ being made king. They broke chairs and branches and beat any of Tiberius’ supporters they could reach. Greater violence broke out and Tiberius was killed along with hundreds of those loyal to him. The plebeians were outraged and tensions grew to a boiling point, but Nascia was sent on a foreign mission. To placate angry plebeians the senate quickly endorsed Tiberius’ reforms and funded the commission tasked with carrying out his reforms.

Tiberius’ younger brother: 

Tiberius’ younger brother In May 129, Scipio Aemilianus was mysteriously found dead in bed. Some thought he was done in by the Gracchans. Gaius Gracchus stood for the tribuneship and was elected in 123, and reelected as unofficial candidate in 122, swept into office by the rural tribes. Gaius was out for revenge against his brother’s murderers. The concilium plebis passed a law against trial for political offense without appeal to the people. Gaius attempted to put together a coalition of small farmers, working-class urbanites, and equestrians (wealthy plebeian business class) to promote his political agenda. Gaius prosecuted Popillius Laenas, consul who had approved the attack on Tiberius’ followers, and Popilius was condemned and exiled.

Gaius’ platform: 

Gaius’ platform Judices (judges) were to be chosen from the equestrian class, instead of from that of the patricians. Unemployed farmers put to work building Rome’s road system. Stabilized grain prices by government subsidy, thus preventing wild price fluctuations. Improve military morale by prohibiting draft of those under 17, making government clothe and equip soldiers at state expense, and shortened tours of duty. Citizenship privileges for Italian allies. Relieved population pressure by founding new colonies. Most controversial was the founding of Junonia near the site of Carthage where 6000 were to be settled.

Too long in africa: 

Too long in africa Gaius went to Africa to help found Junonia, but his domestic enemies sought means to split his constituency. Gaius returned, but could not stand for a third term. Lucius Opimius was elected consul and used the senate authority to declare martial law. Opimius organized a militia that sought out and killed 3000 of Gracchus’ followers in attempt to close the net over Gaius. Trapped, Gaius ordered his slave to kill him.

What the gracchi accomplished: 

What the gracchi accomplished Broke the monopoly of a small number of nobles who dominated senate and assemblies. Enacted many “enlightened” measures for a number of mixed motivations. Made the tribuneship more powerful than the consulship. Became martyrs who were revered by common folk who never let their enemies forget it.

The rise of Gaius Marius: 

The rise of Gaius Marius Those who opposed Gracchian reforms became known as optimates because they favored traditional political practices of family relationships and systems of inter-aristocratic alliances. Their reform-minded opponents were called populares, those who built alliances on public support for reforms. Now the senate optimates were in control. The senate proved inept, and its officials eminently bribable in an attempt to sort out a succession war in Numidia between 118 and 104 (Jugurthine War). Popular indignation over the scandals raised a popularis “novus homo” named Gaius Marius to the office of consul in 107. He was fifty years old and had a distinguished military career, and he promised to honestly sort out Jugurtha. Marius accepted for the first time recruits who had to be physically fit regardless of property qualifications. This would eventually result in soldiers with primary loyalty to their commanders, upon whom they depended for a living.

Marius’ Mules : 

Marius’ Mules Marius had a quaestor serving under him, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who persuaded Jugurtha’s principal ally, King Bocchus to betray Jugurtha. The captured Jugurtha was displayed in Marius’ triumphal parade in 104, then executed by strangulation. Marius was now enormously popular and elected for five consecutive consulships covering a series of foreign crises. German tribes, Cimbri and Teutones, were driven into Transalpine Gaul by overpopulation and natural disaster. Between 109 and 105 they defeated three consecutive Roman armies in battles that left Italy open to invasion. Marius used a lull in the fighting to reorganize and retrain the armies. He began to actively recruit volunteers from the urban poor. He replaced the old maniple system of 200 soldiers with cohorts of 500 to 600 soldiers, with Legions made of of ten cohorts, a heavy infantry armed with javelins, short swords, and scuta (body shields). Marius used hard training that professionalized the armies and made them tough through forced full-pack marches and fatigue duty. In 102-101, “Marius’ Mules,” as the armies were called, defeated two massive armies of Germans, and a third army withdrew.

Reactionaries and Moderates: 

Reactionaries and Moderates At first, Marius was hailed as a savior, even as a god by some. He received an unprecedented sixth consulship, however, Rome was at peace. Populares had helped Marius hold power. IN 100 BC, mobs killed a Tribune and Consul who were essentially political gangsters, but who were supporters of Marius. When Marius is helpless to save them he enters a self-imposed exile. Until 91, reactionary senators were in control and blocked issues of the poor, veterans, and citizenship for Italian allies. Then in 91 the moderates emerged with a majority, led by Livius Drusus. He sought to enlarge the Senate, subsidize grain, and grant citizenship to allies as minimum ways of addressing what was becoming a huge problem. When Drusus sought to bring the issue of citizenship to a vote, he was assassinated. This essentially sparked a civil war.

The Social War, 90-88 bc: 

The Social War, 90-88 bc Allies at Asculum killed a condescending Roman praetor, then rebelled fully. Other allies (socii) rebelled: Apulians, Lucanians, Marsi, Paeligni, and Samnites. They formed a federation with an army of 100,000 made up of war veterans who at first handed defeat to the Romans. There were those in the senate who sympatized and moved to enact needed reform: Lucius Julius Caesar (G. J. Caesar’s cousin) wrote the Lex Julia to extend citizenship to loyal socii. Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Pompeius Strabo (father of Pompey the Great) defeated the bulk of the rebels. The senate ending fighting by offering to grant citizenship to all who laid down their arms within 60 days. Some historians estimate that as many Italians died in this war as in the entire campaign of Hannibal in Italy.

Sulla (138-78 bc): 

Sulla (138-78 bc) When King Mithridates of Pontus invaded the province Asia and massacred 80,000 Italians Sulla was appointed by the senate over Marius to lead Roman armies. The Plebeian assembly vetoed the appointment and gave the leadership to Marius. Sulla pleads to his war veterans to revenge this insult and marches on Rome at the head of six legions. The 70 year old Marius attempts to defend the city, but is defeated and flees to Carthage. Sulla nullifies the power of the tribal and plebeian assemblies and vests more power in the senate. He allows election of consuls but insists that they not revert to old political ways or he will return. Sulla then travels east to deal with Pontus.

Sulla betrayed: 

Sulla betrayed Lucius Cornelius Cinna, the new consul reverses Sulla’s actions and violence breaks out in the city. Marius returns from exile to join Cinna and recaptures Rome after a week long reign of terror. Afterward, Marius wins a seventh consulship but dies two weeks later. Cinna remained the main consul, self-appointed along with Ginaeus Papirius Carbo until Cinna was killed by mutinous Roman soldiers in 84. Meanwhile, Sulla had besieged Athens, allies of Pontus. The city fell in 86 and Sulla defeated a Mithridatic army that outnumbered his Romans by six times at a place called Chaeronea then defeated another large force at Orchomenus. Sulla was to be relieved by a new consul, Valerius Flaccus, who had brought a fresh force to Epirus. Flaccus was murdered by mutinous soldiers led by his associate Flavius Fimbria who took the troops to Asia. Sulla refused and struck a deal with Mithridates in 85. Pontus would retreat to the original borders and surrender much of its fleet.

Civil War: 

Civil War After Sulla’s victory Fimbria is deserted by his troops and commits suicide. Sulla started back for Rome, but found himself opposed by larger Roman armies. Sulla faced a mostly Samnite force at Colline Gate in 82 and defeated it. 50,000 Roman citizens died on both sides in this battle. Sulla took 3000 prisoners and had them butchered. The senate then concedes and appoints Sulla dictator in 82, which he remains till 79. He resigns, but dies a year later. Sulla’s reign as dictator was characterized by blood purges. All power was concentrated in the senate. Sulla nicknamed himself Felix— “Lucky” He was lucky to die before he saw the intense bitterness and hatred he left as a legacy that essentially ruined the republic, though it would last another 50 years.