Slide1 : 1.02 Identify historical and technological developments in structural systems
Slide2 : Structures should be analyzed utilizing the following three areas:
The influence of their technology on history.
An understanding of the attributes of their design.
The processes, procedures, and design constraints of the time.
Slide3 : Prehistoric- Stonehenge The megalithic ruin known as Stonehenge stands on the open downland of Salisbury Plain two miles (three kilometres) west of the town of Amesbury, Wiltshire, in Southern England
The Sarsen Circle:
108 feet (33 metres) in diameter
originally comprised of 30 neatly trimmed upright sandstone blocks of which only 17 are now standing.
The stones are evenly spaced approximately 1.0 to 1.4 metres apart, and stand on average 13 feet (4 metres) above the ground. They are about 6.5 feet (2 metres) wide and 3 feet (1 metre) thick and taper towards the top.
They originally supported sarsen lintels forming a continuous circle around the top. Each lintel block has been shaped to the curve of the circle. The average length of the rectangular lintels is 3.2 metres (10' 6"). The lintels were fitted end-to end using tongue-and-groove joints, and fitted on top of the standing sarsen with mortice and tenon joints.
The Sarsen Circle with its lintels is perhaps the most remarkable feature of Stonehenge in terms of design, precision stonework, and engineering. Stonehenge is the only stone circle in the world with horizontal lintels across the top of the stones.
Bluestones which are the smaller stones that you can see in the pictures came from the Prescelli Mountains in Pembroke, South Wales 245 miles (380kms), dragged down to the sea, floated on huge rafts, brought up the River Avon, finally overland to where they are today. Each stone weighs about five tons. It required unbelievable dedication from ancient man to bring these stones all the way from South Wales.
Slide4 : What
You
Don’t
See… Solution: The Project provides for a visitor centre at Countess East, 3km (2 miles) to the east of Stonehenge. All car and coach parking will be at the visitor centre, and a visitor transit system will take visitors to within walking distance of the Stones; provision will be made for those visitors who are unable to undertake the walk.
Slide5 : Stonehenge: a visual history
http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/default.asp?wci=MainFrame&URL1=http%3A//www.english-heritage.org.uk/default.asp%3FWCI%3DNode%26WCE%3D8391
Slide6 : Sumeria- ziggurat, cities, irrigation systems Sumeria- ziggurat, cities, irrigation systems
All of the Sumerian cities were built beside rivers, either on the Tigris or Euphrates or on one
of their tributaries. The city rose, inside its brown brick walls, amid well-watered gardens and pastures
won from the swamps. In all directions, the high levees of the irrigation canals led to grain and
vegetable fields. The most elaborate of the Sumerian buildings was the temple or ziggurat. Normally a
huge platform or terrace was first constructed, upon which the temple could be built; but in later times,
as the terraces grew to be like artificial mountains, they were built in huge steps or levels mounted by
an elaborate stairway clearly symbolizing the ascent toward heaven. These early cities, which existed
by 3500 BC, were called temple towns because they were built around the temple of the local god. The
temples were eventually built up on towers called ziggurats (holy mountains), which had ramps or
staircases winding up around the exterior. Public buildings and marketplaces were built around these
shrines.
Slide7 : Egypt- pyramids, cliff tombs. temples, cities. Egypt- pyramids, cliff tombs. temples, cities.
It is the one and only Wonder which does not require a description by early historians and
poets. It is the one and only Wonder that does not need speculations concerning its appearance, size,
and shape. It is the oldest, yet it is the only surviving of the Seven Ancient Wonders. It is the Great
Pyramid of Giza.
A major problem facing the builders of the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids, was that of getting the
Large stone blocks to the height they required. The use of ramps is the only one proven to have been
used. The ramps were built on inclined planes of mud brick and rubble. They then dragged the blocks
on sledges to the needed height. As the pyramid grew taller, the ramp had to be extended in length, and
its base was widened, else it would collapse. It is likely that for the construction of each pyramid,
several ramps were probably used
Slide8 : Greece- Parthenon, Acropolis, amphitheaters, cities Greece- Parthenon, Acropolis, amphitheaters, cities
The Parthenon is a Doric peripteral temple, which means that it consists of a rectangular floor
plan with a series of low steps on every side, and a colonnade (8 x 17) of Doric columns extending
around the periphery of the entire structure. The three main types of columns used in Greek temples
and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The truest and most basic difference
among the orders has to do with proportions (Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter,
Ionic columns taller and slimmer). As a shortcut, the orders may be distinguished most easily by their
capitals (the tops of the columns)
Slide9 : Rome- aqueducts, viaducts, baths, Coliseums, roads
Rome- aqueducts, viaducts, baths, Colosseum, roads
The Amphitheater is 465 feet long, 386 feet wide and 118 feet high. The
foundation of cement measures 23 feet thick. The building was built on the site of an
artificial lake which had to be drained. Some of those drains are still in use today. (If
those drains were closed the amphitheater could be flooded for mock sea battles) The
exterior was made up of three tiers of arches. The first set of arches were Doric, the
second Ionic, and the third were Corinthian. The amphitheater was equipped with 240 masts. On the
masts a large canvas would be attached which could be extended to protect the audience from the
elements.
Slide10 : China- Buddhist temples, gardens, homes, Great Wall China- Buddhist temples, gardens, homes, Great Wall
The Great Wall is reputed as one of the seven construction wonders
in the world not only for its long history, but its massive construction size, and
its unique architectural style as well.
The construction of the Great Wall began between the 7th and 8th centuries B.C. when the
warring states built defensive walls to ward off enemies from the north. It was only a regional project
then. Until the Qin Dynasty, the separate walls were joint together and consequently it stretched from
east to west for about 5000 thousand kilometers and served to keep nomadic tribes out. The Wall was
further extended and strengthened in the succeeding dynasties. Especially during the Ming dynasty
when the northern nomadic ethnic groups became very powerful, the Ming rulers had the Wall
renovated 18 times. As a result, not the remains from the Qin dynasty were restored, but some 1000
kilometers were constructed to a full length of 6,700 kilometers
Slide11 : Japan- pagodas, temples, gardens, homes Japan- pagodas, temples, gardens, homes
Because of their wood construction, Japan's pagodas have always been extremely vulnerable to
fire. At the same time, these tall, slender towers, built of interlocking posts and beams, are so resistant
to earthquakes and typhoons that Japan's long architectural history records only a very few instances of
their collapsing. Some 1,300 years after it was built, the five-story pagoda of Horyuji in Nara shows
not the slightest sign of instability. In the article that follows, architect Ueda Atsushi describes the
ingenious techniques by which the Japanese of earlier times built their pagodas to withstand even the
strongest winds and earthquakes.
Slide12 : Of course, high towers have been built in the West ever since the Middle Ages. In all cases,
however, the material is masonry--stones or bricks joined to form a single mass of wall capable of
withstanding this or that impact from without. In the case of Japan's wooden pagodas, however, each
story is structurally independent.
Each story of the pagoda is basically a square box with no bottom, built around twelve outer
pillars, or gawabashira. The pagoda as a whole is, in essence, five stacked boxes. Since each story is
smaller than the one beneath it, the placement of the gawabashira moves inward as one proceeds up
the pagoda, meaning that horizontal beams are needed to support the gawabashira of each story above
the first. In fact, these pillars rest on horizontal bases, which in turn are supported by taruki--slanting
beams that run from the inside of the structure diagonally downward to the outside, where they support
the eaves.
The weight of the upper story, pushing down on the inner ends of the taruki, would cause the
outer ends to rise if there were no counterweight. The heavy tiled roof of the eaves performs precisely
this function. In short, the taruki functions as a lever arm, while the top of the gawabashira serves as
the fulcrum.
Slide13 : The story above bears down on the inner end of the lever, and the overhanging roof balances
this load at the outer end or, to put it another way, the heavy eaves are in effect supported by the story
above. When one reaches the uppermost level, of course, there is no story above to counterbalance the
overhang. Here, however, the tall copper or iron spire, or finial, performs that function. The finial of
the Horyuji pagoda, we are told, weighs a full three tons.
Ueda explains in detail how this lever construction ensures that, during typhoons and earthquakes,
pagodas swing and sway but almost never collapse. Built not to resist the forces of nature head-on but
to accept and absorb their impact, pagodas epitomize the ingenuity of traditional Japanese wood
architecture. This solution to the problem of structural stability could be said to manifest the Japanese
approach to nature--not only to observe it carefully but also to learn from it and coexist harmoniously
with it.
Slide14 : Islam- Hagia Shopia, mosques, minarets Islam- Hagia Shopia, mosques, minarets
Architecturally the grand basilica represented a major revolution in
church construction in that it featured a huge dome which necessitated the
implementation of new ideas in order to support the weight of this dome, a
feat which had not been attempted before. In the days when there was no
steel used in construction, large roofs and domes had to be supported by
massive pillars and walls. The dome of Hagia Sophia was supported by
four piers (the solid supports from which the arches spring), each measuring about 118 square yards at
the base. Four arches support the circular base from which rises the dome which is pierced by forty
single-arched windows which admit light to the interior.
The church itself measures 260 x 270 feet; the dome rises 210 feet above the floor and has a
diameter of 110 feet. The nave is 135 feet wide, more than twice the width of the aisles which measure
62 feet. Because Constantinople lies in an earthquake-prone region, the massive structure of the Great
Church was deemed sufficient to meet the threat. That expectation however was disappointed when in
later years earthquakes destroyed parts of the church and dome, requiring massive repairs including the
construction of large buttresses to support the walls which in turn held up the dome.
Slide15 : India- Taj mahal, rock cut temples India- Taj mahal, rock cut temples
The Taj Mahal, India’s most famous architectural wonder, in a land where
magnificent temples and edificies abound,reminds visitors about the rich civilization
of a country that is slowly but surely lifting itself into an industrialized society.
Taj Mahal means "Crown Palace" and is in fact the most well preserved and
architecturally beautiful tomb in the world. It is a celebration of woman built in
marble and that’s the way to appreciate it.
Construction began in 1631 and was completed in 22 years. Twenty thousand people were
deployed to work on it. The material was brought in from all over India and central Asia and it took a
fleet of 1000 elephants to transport it to the site. The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base topped by a
huge white marble terrace on which rests the famous dome flanked by four tapering minarets. Within
the dome lies the jewel-inlaid cenotaph of the queen. The rectangular base of Taj is in itself symbolic
of the different sides from which to view a beautiful woman. The main gate is like a veil to a woman’s
face which should be lifted delicately, gently and without haste on the wedding night.
The dome is made of white marble, but the tomb is set against the plain across the river and it is
this background that works its magic of colours that, through their reflection, change the view of the
Taj. The colours change at different hours of the day and during different seasons. Like a jewel, the Taj
sparkles in moonlight when the semi-precious stones inlaid into the white marble on the main
mausoleum catch the glow of the moon. The Taj is pinkish in the morning, milky white in the evening
and golden when the moon shines. These changes, they say, depict the different moods of woman.
Slide16 : Pre- Columbian- Aztec, Maya, Inca Pre-Columbian- Aztec, Maya, Inca
Their cities and fortresses were mostly built on highlands and on the
steep slopes of the Andes Mountains. The architecture of the Inca cities still
amazes and puzzles most scientists. Stone steps lead up to the top of the
cities, which consist of stone houses and religious buildings. The blocks of
stones weigh several tons and they are fit together so tightly that not even a
razor blade can fit through them. The central city was mainly used for government purposes, while the
citizens occupied surrounding areas. Their homes were made from the same stone material and had
grass rooftops.
Since population was increasing and the organization of the Inca became stronger, the need for
protection became necessary. They built enormous fortresses on top of steep mountains that enabled
them to see their enemies and defend themselves. One of the most famous Inca fortresses is
Sacasahuman (pictured above), located in Cuzco, the Inca Empire capital. Even though the Inca never
had access to the wheel, they built a sophisticated road system to connect the villages. The roads were
paved with flat stones and barriers to protect the messengers.
Slide17 : Medieval Europe- castles, cathedrals, hill towns, wall towns Durham cathedral building - a large part of which dates back some 900 years - is widely
regarded as one of the most complete and perfect examples of Romanesque architecture still in
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE - A style of architecture that flourished in Western Europe
between 1050 and 1200. This style derived its name from the fact that it drew much of its influence
from Roman architecture. In England, it is also called the Norman style. Some of the characteristic
features of this school of architecture are:
Rounded arches
Squat, massive pillars
Small windows
Simple, carved decoration.
Slide18 : Renaissance Europe- St. Peter’s cathedral, Leaning tower of Pisa Renaissance Europe- St. Peter’s cathedral, Leaning tower of Pisa
TOWER BASICS
Official Name: TORRE PENDENTE DI PISA
Function: Bell Tower (Campanile)
Original Architect: Bonanno Pisano
Architect who realized that the Leaning Tower could not be straightened:
Tomasso di Andrea da Pontedera (1275)
Years Built: 1173-1350
First Construction Stop: 1178 (War with Firenze)
Year in which lean became obvious: 1178 (Third Story)
Height at which lean became obvious: 10.6 meters (35 ft.)
Level at which Tower Straightens to North: 5 (About 110 meters)
Second Construction Stop: 1185 (War with Firenze)
Later Construction Stop: 1284 (War with Genoa, Major Sea Battle Defeat)
Height: 55.863 meters (185 feet). 8 stories.
Weight: 14,700 metric tons
Thickness of Walls at the Base: 8 feet
Direction of Lean: 1173-1250 North, 1272-1997 South
7th Floor Completed: 1319
Bell Tower Completed: 1350
First Bells added: 1198 (Third Floor)
Total Number of Bells: 7, tuned to musicalSystems and Society
Largest Bell: Three and a half tons, cast in 1655.
Year cement injected into base, (blamed for lean acceleration): 1934
Steps to Bell Tower: 294
Date Closed to Public: 7 January 1990
Date Re-opened to Public: 15 December 2001
Weight of Lead added on North side: 600 tons (1995)
Amount of tilt recorded overnight in September 1995: 2.5 mm (0.07")
Weight of Lead added after overnight tilt in September 1995: 230 tons
Rate of Fall in 1990: 1.2 mm (1/20") every year ("Un millimetre per anno")
Source: The Guardian (London) August 19 1997
Amount of tilt correction from 1990 - 1999: 25 mm (about 1.0")
Amount of tilt correction from 1999-2001: 43.8 cm (about 17.25")
Date that Tower was last at current tilt: 1700
Slide19 : Modern Europe- Bauhaus style, Eiffel Tower, Euro tunnel, Millenium dome
Modern Europe- Bauhaus style, Eiffel Tower, Euro tunnel, Millenium dome
The Millennium Dome is the largest structure of its type in the World. 100,000 square metres
of domed fabric held up by forty-three miles of high-strength cabling, the building measures over one
kilometre in circumference and covers over 80,000 square metres. It is so big, it would completely
cover the Great Pyramid of Giza. The cover of the Dome is made of PTFE-coated glass fiber, which
has an estimated minimum lifetime of 25 years. The structure, designed by the Richard Rogers
Partnership is 320m in diameter and 50 meters high at its center. It is twice the size of the Wembley
stadion and covers 20 acres of ground floor space. The structure is expected to last until 2018. After
that year, developers are allowed to demolish the dome and redevelop the site.
Slide20 : Early U.S.- native American dwellings, pioneer homes, Colonial architecture Early U.S.- Native American dwellings, pioneer homes, Colonial architecture
Tepees (or tipis): The name tepee is derived from a Dakota word meaning a place where one
lives. Developed by Indians of the northern forests, the tepee was crafted from a pole frame then
covered with birchbark, caribou hides or other materials. The basic structure was then adapted by
nomadic Plains tribes, who strengthened the frame against strong winds and sewed buffalo hides
together for the covering. Since the Plains Indians were constantly on the move, their homes had to be
readily transportable. The supporting poles were lashed to the sides of a horse and the other pieces
dragged along the ground forming a kind of triangle. The buffalo hide covering as well as most of the
family's other belongings were then carried off to the new location by the horse. This transport system
was called a travois.
Slide21 : Contemporary U.S.- Empire State Building, Astrodome, St. Louis Arch, Capital building The stainless-steel-faced St. Louis Arch spans 630 ft. between the outer faces of its triangular
legs at ground level, and its top soars 630 ft. into the sky. It takes the shape of an inverted catenary
curve, a shape such as this would be formed by a heavy chain hanging freely between two supports.
87
Technology Competencies
1.00 Systems and Society
Each leg is an equilateral triangle with sides 54 ft. long at ground level, tapering to 17 ft. at the top.
The legs have double walls of steel 3 ft. apart at ground level and 7-3/4 in. apart above the 400-foot
level. Up to the 300-foot mark the space between the walls is filled with reinforced concrete. Beyond
that point steel stiffeners are us
The double-walled, triangular sections were placed one on top of another and then welded
inside and out to build the legs of the Arch. Sections ranged in height from 12 ft. at the base to 8 ft. for
the two keystone sections. The complex engineering design and construction is completely hidden
from view. All that can be seen is its sparkling stainless steel outside skin and inner skin of carbon
steel, which combine to carry the gravity and wind loads to the ground. The Arch has no real structural
skeleton. Its inner and outer steel skins, joined to form a composite structure, give it its strength and
permanence.
Slide22 : Internet
THE WONDERFUL STRUCTURES OF THE WORLD
http://pweb.jps.net/~taile/
EARTH MYSTERIES-STONEHENGE
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/earthmysteries/EMStonehenge.html
NATIVE AMERICAN DWELLINGS
http://www.thewildwest.org/native_american/society/Dwellings.html
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARCH
http://www.nps.gov/jeff/arch-const.htm
THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT SUMERIA
http://ragz-international.com/sumeria.htm
STRUCTURES RESOURCES ON THE WEB
http://www.fi.edu/structures/list.html
GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA.
http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/pyramid.html
Videos
This Old Pyramid
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/listseason/19.html#1915
Stonehenge
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/stonehenge/
Fall of the Leaning Tower
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pisa/
Frozen in Heaven
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru/